Cc 




CIass_i^^ 
Book___fr 



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1. Spikelet, Magnified. 

2. Flower. 



FOWL MEADOW. See p. 44. 



3. Gorm. 



PRACTICAL TREATISE 



GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS 



COMFBISINa 



THEIR NATURAL HISTORY, COMPARATIVE NUTRITIVE VALUE, METHODS OF 

CULTIVATING, CUTTING AND CURING, AND THE MANAGEMENT 

OF GRASS LANDS. 



BY CHARLES L. FLINT, A.M., 

8K0RETABT OF THE MASSACHUSETTS 8TATB BOARD OF AGRICULTURE, MEMBER OP TH8 
BOSTON SOCIETY OP NATURAL HISTORY, ETC. ETC. 



NEW YORK: 

G. P. PUTNAM & CO., 321 BROADWAY. 

LONDON: 

N. TRUBNER & CO., 12 PATERNOSTER ROW. 

1857. 






2f. 



^^''d-H 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1857, 

By George P. Putnam & Co., 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Southern District of New York. 



dy transfer frocc 

Pat. ®fiiee Lib. 

Aprt) 1914 



WiLLi.VM White, Printer, 
4 Spring Lane, Boston. 



PREFACE. 



It has been my endeavor, in the following pages, to 
treat my subject in a plain, simple manner, so as to 
enable the farmer to distinguish between the different 
species of grass by means of the descriptions given, and 
to awaken an interest in the pursuit of the subject, 
treating cursorily of the natural history of the grasses, 
and indicating to the reader the vast field of study which 
lies open to him in this department. 

The illustrations, which will be found to be very care- 
fully and accurately drawn, will tend to render the under- 
standing of the text more easy, and thus make interesting 
to all much that would be attractive only to the scientific 
student of botany if they were omitted. 

In looking at the subject in its economical aspect, I 
have tried to give all that is known to be of value, and 
have presented the conclusions of practical men in regard 
to points about which the opinions of individuals 
actively engaged in agriculture differ. It has been my 
object, in a word, to give the work an eminently practical 
character, and not to make it merely a collection of doubt- 
ful theories and vague generalities. It must be left to 
the reader to determine how far I have accomplished this 
purpose. 



IV PREFACE. 

The local names of many species of grass are so 
numerous that I can hardly hope to have given them all, 
in every case, though what are known to me I have given 
as synonyms. Should the work meet with such favor as 
to call-for another edition, I shall attempt to make it less 
imperfect in this respect. 

It may not be irrelevant to remark here that but little 
is known of the real economical value of some of the 
grasses which I have described, and it is by no means 
impossible that many of our wild grasses which we now 
look upon as almost worthless, may be found at some 
future time to possess valuable nutritive qualities, and 
thus be added to our list of grasses which may be 
profitably cultivated. 

It seems to be altogether unnecessary to multiply 
authorities, either here or in the body of the work, to 
prove the importance of the subject. Perhaps the most 
forcible expression of opinion on this point may be found 
in the French writer Avho asserts that the term grass is 
only another name for beef, mutton, bread and clothing ; 
and in the Belgian proverb — " No grass, no cattle ; no 
cattle, no manure ; no manure, no crops ! " For myself I 
can only say that if my researches, — imperfect as they 
doubtless have been, — shall have the effect of creating a 
more general interest in the subject, and leading to more 
careful inquiry and more general and accurate investiga- 
tion, I shall be amply rewarded for any labor I may have 
undergone in the preparation of these pages. 

c. L. F. 
Boston, Feb., 1857. 



GRASSES AND EOMGE PLANTS. 



I propose to speak of the grasses, a family of plants the 
most extensive and the most beautiful, as well as the most 
important to mankind. It embraces nearly a sixth part of the 
whole vegetable kingdom ; it clothes the globe with perpetual 
verdure, or adorns it at fixed seasons with a thick matted carpet 
of green, none the less beautiful for its simplicity, and it nour- 
ishes and sustains by far the greater part of the animals that 
serve us and minister to our wants. 

When we consider the character of our climate, and the 
necessity of stall feeding during five or six months of the year, 
for which we are dependent mainly on the grasses, we shall see 
that in an economical point of view, this subject is one of the 
most important that can occupy the farmer's attention. 

The annual value of the grass crop to the country, for 
pasturage and hay together, is not less than ISOO^OOOjOOO. 

I shall endeavor to give a brief account of the natural history 
or description of all the useful grasses found in our fields and 
pastures, partly because it is essential to a complete under- 
standing of the subject, and partly because there is at present 
no popular treatise on the subject within the easy reach of our 
farmers, and something of the kind is needed for reference ; 
but I shall confine myself mainly to a plain and practical treat- 
ment of the subject, making such suggestions as I think may 
be useful, on the cultivation, cutting and curing of the grasses 
for hay, the comparative value of the different varieties, and 
the general management of grass lands. 

This subject, familiar to me from my earliest recollection, 
has occupied my attention almost exclusively, during the past 



2 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

year. Within this period I have been able to make an exten 
sive collection, embracing nearly all the varieties of our New 
England grasses, for preservation in the Agricultnral Mnseum 
connected with my office. 

The grasses are variously divided, classified and arranged. 
They are sometimes designated as natural or artificial ; the 
former comprising all the true grasses, — that is, plants with 
long, simple, narrow leaves, each leaf having many fine veins 
or lines running parallel with a central prominent vein or mid- 
rib, and a long sheath (Fig. 1.) divided to the base, which 
seems to clasp the stem, or through which the stem seems to 
pass, the stem being hollow, with very few exceptions, and 
closed at the nodes or joints ; and the latter — the artificial — 
comprising those plants, mostly leguminous, which have been 
cultivated and used like the grasses, though they do not 
properly belong to that family, such as the clovers, sainfoin 
and medic. In common language the term is often used in a 
sense not strictly proper, bemg not unfrequently applied to any 
herbage which affords nourishment to herbaceous animals, 
including, of course, not only many leguminous plants like 
clovers, but some others which would more properly be called 
forage plants. 

But in botanical language, and speakhig more precisely, the 
grasses, Graminecc, embrace most of the grains cultivated and 
used by man, as wheat, rye, Indian corn, barley and rice, all 
of which will be at once recognized as having leaves and stems 
very similar in shape and structure to most of the plants popu- 
larly called grasses. 

As the general appearance of plants is often greatly modified 
by climate, soil and modes of cultivation, it is important to fix 
upon certain characteristics which are permanent and unaltered 
by circumstances, by means of which the particular genus and 
species may be identified with ease and certainty. It is evident 
that these characteristics could not be simply in the leaves, or 
the stems, or the size of the plant, because there will be a great 
difference between plants growing in a poor, thin, sandy soil, 
and others of the same species on a deep, rich loam. Bota- 
nists have, therefore, been compelled to xesort to other peculiari- 
ties to distinguish between different species; and the terms used 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



.Sf,IMett 




^Shettk otleaf^ 



Fig. 1. Annual Spear Grass. 



NATURAL HISTORY. 5 

to express these, like the terms used in other departments of 
natural history, are technical; and hence, in detailing the 
natural history of the grasses, the use of technical language to 
a greater or less extent, cannot be avoided. I shall endeavor, 
however, by the use of plates and synonyms to bring the de- 
scription of species within the easy comprehension of every one 
who will carefully examine the subject. 

The flowers of the grasses are arranged on the stem in spikes, 
as where they are set on a common stalk without small stalks 
or branches for each separate flower, as in Herds-grass, {plileum 
praiense,') or in panicles, or loose subdivided clusters, as in 
orchard grass, (dactylis glomerata.') A panicle is said to be 
loose or spreading, as in redtop, (agrostis vulgaris,} when the 
small branches on which the flowers are set, are open, or ex- 
tended out freely in different directions ; it is said to be dense, 
or crowded or compressed, when the branches are so short as to 
give it more or less of the spike form. 

The spikelets (Fig. 2) have a calyx, (Fig. 4) containing one, 
two or more florets, (Fig. 3.) This whole arrangement will 
be seen in Fig. 1, which represents a stalk of the common 
annual spear grass, (poa annua,} a plant familiar to every one 
as often troublesome in gravel walks and on hard, dry soils. 
Here the joint, the stem or culm, clasped by the sheath of the 
leaf, the leaf itself, the ligule and the spikelets, all distinctly 
appear, and the reader will do well to make himself familiar with 
the few technical terms used by a study of this figure, in con^ 
nection with Fig. 2, where the spikelet is so magnified as to show 
the florets and the calyx very distinctly, all of which are generally 
very easily seen with the naked eye, and Fig. 3, showing a floret 
still more magnified, with its two palejB, the outer palea being 
the longer and generally keeled, — that is, having one, three or 
more longitudinal ribs, often having on the back, base or sum- 
mit, an awn or beard of difi"erent lengths, as in the oat and 
brome grasses, the inner palea with two separate fringed ribs, 
each on a fold at the side. The calyx, bract or outer scale of 
the spikelet, is shown very much magnified in Fig. 4, composed 
of two glumes, the upper and lower, the upper glume being the 
larger. One or both of the glumes are sometimes wanting. 

In Fig. 5, is shown the pistil magnified, consisting of the 
nectary, composed of one or two fleshy scales, (in some plants 



6 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

of this family both on one side, in some, entirely wanting,) and 
the germ, ovary, or seed bearing portion of the pistil. The 
stamens are also seen in the same figure, consisting each of a 
bag filled with a fine powder or pollen, supported upon a stalk 
or filament which is analagous to the stalk or stem of a leaf, 
while the bag which holds the pollen, called the anther, corres- 
ponds to the blade or body of the leaf. These are essential 
parts of the flower. At a particular stage of its growth, the 
anther, bursting, scatters its pollen, some of which, lighting 
upon the summit of the stigma, is said to fertilize it, when the 
new seed begins to enlarge, and a germ is formed capable of 
producing other plants.* This process is very apparent to the 
observation of the farmer in the case of Indian corn, on which 
the pollen is so abundant that it may be shaken off in clouds. 
It falls upon the stigmas or " silks," one of which is attached 
to each embryo seed or germ ; and without this particle of pol- 
len, the seed would not be capable of attaining maturity. The 
same is seen less palpably in the other grasses, as, for instance, 
in Herds-grass. The same arrangement occurs in this whole 
family of plants, though it is more evident in Indian corn, on 
account of its size, than in the smaller grasses. The anther, as 
will be seen, consists of two cells — very prominent a,nd hanging, 
supported on the long, slender filaments, and forked or divided 
at the end. The two short and smooth styles rise from the 
summit of the ovary, and the stigmas are feathery or rough, 
» sometimes branched or compound. Only one seed is contained 
in each ovary, and each seed is covered, when mature, with a 
thin husk or hull called the pericarp, which originally formed 
the germ or ovary ; and the ripe seed or fruit is only the ovary 
arrived at maturity. The substance or albumen of the seed of 
all the grasses is mealy or farinaceous, as wheat, for instance, 
or rye, or Indian corn, which are most used as seeds, on account 
of their size and productiveness. 

These are the prominent characteristics of this great and 
universally diffused order of plants, constituting, as it does, the 
chief support of animals as well as men. They belong, as has 

* The germ is the first part of the seed that is distinctly formed, and hence, 
if Indian corn is plucked while " in the milk," or in a green state, fit for 
boiling, it will germinate the next year as well as if it were allowed to ripen. 



NATURAL HISTORY. 7 

been seen, to other plants than those commonly called grasses, 
the order gramineas, as I have already stated, embracing the 
grains, as wheat, barley, rye, and many others, while it does 
not include the clovers, which properly belong to the order of 
leguminous plants. 

These characteristics, or at least the most important of them, 
will be very easily kept in mind, as the long, narrow and lance 
shaped leaves, and the mealy nature of the seeds which makes 
nearly the whole family valuable and nutritious ; but in study- 
ing the distinctive characteristics of the different species and 
varieties particularly valuable or interesting to an agriculturist 
as forage plants, it will be necessary to depend more upon the 
technical terms already referred to, though these will be avoided, 
or explained in the context as far as possible. 

It will have been observed that considerable importance is 
given to the flowers and seeds as distinguishing characters of 
the grasses. It will often be found difficult from the mere 
external appearance of a variety of grass to determine to what 
species, or even to what genus it belongs, so great is the resem- 
blance between the different species of this class of plants ; but 
with the aid of a small magnifying glass there will very seldom 
be much difficulty in determining the species, especially if the 
plant is taken while in blossom. Indeed, it will often be pos- 
sible to arrive at a conclusion from an inspection of a few of the 
more evident characters. 

I shall limit myself mainly to a description of those species 
which it may be for the interest of the farmer to cultivate, or 
at least to encourage in his pastures, with such others as should 
be known to be avoided. 

In the arrangement of species I shall follow mainly the natu- 
ral order adopted by Professor Gray, to whom, as well as to 
many others, I am indebted for no small assistance, in studying 
the specific characteristics of many of the specimens collected 
and presented in the following pages. 

The reader will find that a frequent reference to figures 1, 2, 
3, 4 and 5 will greatly aid him in becoming familiar with the 
technical terms applied to the organs or parts of the flower 
which it is desirable to understand, and by means of which he 
will soon learn to distinguish the different species more readily. 

In giving the scientific names, the first word that occurs in 



8 



GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 



parenthesis is the name of the genus ; the second, that of the 
species ; as for instance, in Herds-grass, (^phleum pratense,') 
phleum is the generic name, pratense the specific. A genus 
often contains many species. 

Tlie grasses which are described more or less minutely in the 
following pages, are named in 

Table I. List of Grasses and Forage Plants. 



Common Name. 


Botanical Name. 


Time of 

Blo.ssomii]g. 


AVild or 
Cultv'd. 


Place of growth. 


Rice Grass, 


Leersia oryzoides, . 


August, 


wild. 


Low wet places. 


White Grass, . 


Leersia Virginica, . 


August, 


u 


Damp woods. 


Indian Rice, . 


Zizania aquatica, . 


August, 


" 


Borders of streams. 


Meadow Foxtail, . 


Alopecurus pratensis, . 


May, 


cultiv'd, 


Fields and pastures. 


Ploating Foxtail, . 


Alopecurus geniculatus. 


July, Aug. . 


wild, 


Wet meadows, ditches 


Slender Foxtail, 


Alopecurus agrestis. 


July, . 


" 


Fields and pastures. 


Wild Water Foxtail, 


Alopecurus aristulatus, 


June to Aug. 


'■ 


In wet meadows. 


Timothy, or Herds-grass, 


Phleum pratense, 


June, July, . 


cultiv'd. 


Fields and pastures. 


Rush Grass, . 


Vilfa aspera, . 


September, . 


wild. 


Dry sandy soils. 


Late Drop-seed, 


Sporobolus serotinus, . 


September, . 


" 


Wet sands. 


Redtop, .... 


Agrostis vulgaris, . 


July, . 


cultiv'd. 


Fields and pastures. 


English Bent, 


Agrostis alba, 


July, . 


" 


Fields and pastures. 


Fiorin, .... 


Agrostis stolonifera, 


July, . 


" 


Moist meadows. 


Brown Bent, . 


Agrostis canina, . 


June, July. . 


- - 


Fields and pastures. 


Tickle Grass, . 


Agrostis scabra. 


June, July, . 


wild. 


Old fields. 


Southern Bent, 


Agrostis dispar. 


July, . . 


cultiv'd, 


Fields, pastures. 


Annual Beard Grass, 


Polypogon monspeliensis 


June, July, . 


wOd, 


Near the coast. 


Wood-reed Grass, . 


Cinna arundinacea, 


July, August, 




' 


Shady swamps. 


NunbleWill, . 


Muhlenbergia diffusa, . 


August, Sept. 




i 


Dry hills, woods. 


Mexican Mxihlenbergia, . 


Muhlenbergia Mexicana, 


August, 




' 


Low grounds. 


Sylvan Muhlenbergia, . 


Muhlenbergia sylvatica. 


August, Sept. 




' 


Rocky woods. 


Awnless Muhlenbergia, . 


Muhlenbergia sobolifera, 


August, Sept. 




' 


Open rocky woods. 


Willdenow's Muhlenber- 
gia, .... 


Muhlenbergia Willdenovii 


August, Sept. 




I 


Open rocky woods. 


Awned Brachyelytrum, . 


Brachyelytrum aristatum 


June, . 






Rocky woods. 


Blue Joint Grass, . 


Calamagrostis Canadensis 


July, . 




' 


Wet grounds. 


Glaucous Small Reed, . 


Calamagrostis coarctata. 


August, 




' 


Wet grounds. 


Beach Grass, Sea Reed, . 
Upright Sea Lyme Grass, 


Ammophila arundinacea, 
Elymus arenarius, . 


August, 
July, . 


wild and 
cultiv'd, 
cultiv'd, 


Drifting sands. 
Drifting sands. 


Mountain Rice, 


Oryzopsis melanocarpa, 


August, 


wild. 


Rocky woods. 



NATURAL HISTORY. 
Table I. — Continued. 



Common Hame. 



Feather Grass, 

Poverty Grass, 

Fresh Water Cord Grass, 

Salt Reed Grass, 

Rush Salt Grass, . 

Salt Marsh Grass, . 

Sand Grass, . 

Orchard Grass, 

Pennsylvanian Eatonia, . 

Rattlesnake Grass, . 

Obtuse Spear Grass, 

Long Panicled Manna 
Grass, .... 



Botanical Name. 



Meadow Spear Grass, 
Pale Manna Grass, . . 
Spike Grass, . 
June Grass, . 
Blue Grass, 
Annual Spear Grass, 
Rough Stalked Meadow 
Wood Meadow Grass, 
Sea Spear Grass, . 
Common Manna Grass, . 
"Wary Meadow Gra^s, 
Water Spear Grass, 
Fowl Meadow, 
Creeping Meadow, . 
Strong-scented Meadow, 
Slender Meadow, . 
Quaking Grass, 
Small Fescue Grass, 
Sheep's Fescue, 
Meadow Fescue, 
Tall Fescue Grass, . 
Hard Fescue Grass, 
Red Fescue Grass, . 
Slender Fescue, 



Stipa avenacea, 
Aristida dichotoma, 
Spartina cynosuroides, 
Spartina polystachya, 
Spartina juncea, . 
Spartina stricta, . 
Tricuspis purpurea, 
Dactylis glomerata, 
Eatonia Pennsylvanica, 
Glyceria Canadensis, 
Glyceria obtusa, . 



Time of 



Glyceria elongata, . 
Glyceria neryata, . 
Glyceria pallida, . 
Brizopyrum spicatum, 
Poa pratensis, 
Poa compressa, 
Poa annua, . 
Poa trivialis, . 
Poa nemoraUs, 
Poa maritima, 
Poa fluitans, . 
Poa liixa, 
Poa aquatica, 
Poa serotina . 
Eragrostis reptans, 
Eragrostis poreoides, 
Eragrostis pilosa, . 
Briza media, . 
Festuca tenella, 
Festuca ovina, 
Festuca pratensis, . 
Festuca el^tior, 
Festuca duriuscula, 
Festuca rubra, 
Festuca loliacea, . 



July, . 

September, 

August, 

Auguet, 

August, 

August, 

August, Sept 

June, 

June, . 

July, . 

August, 

June, July, 
June, July, 
July, . 
August, 
June, July, 
July, August, 
April to Oct. 
July, . 
June, . 
July, . 
June, . 
July, . 
August, 
July & Aug 
July & Aug 
Aug. & Sept 
August, 
June, . 
July, . 
June, . 
June, . 
June, July, 
June, . 



Wild or 
cultv'd. 



wild. 



Place of growth. 



cultiv'i 
wild. 



wild and 
cultiv'd, 

wild, 



cultiv'd, 
u 

wild, 

cultiv'd, 

wild, 



cultiv'd, 
wild. 



cultiv'd, 



wUd, 
cultiv'd. 



Dry sandy woods. 

Sandy fields, pine 

barrets^ 
Banks of streams. 

Brackish marshes. 

Salt marches, beaches 

Sea coasti 

Dry sands on the 

coast. 
Fields and pastures. 

Moist woods. 

Wet bogs. 

Borders of ponds. 

Woods and swamps. 

Moist and wet mea- 
dows. 
Shallow water. 

Salt marshes. 

Fields and pastures. 

Dry road sides and 

pastures. 
Fields and pastures. 

Fields and pastures. 

Fields and pastures. 

By the sea side. 

Moist and muddy 

ditches. 
High rocky hills. 

In wet soils. 

In wet soils. 

Sandy river banks. 

Sandy fields, road 

sides. 
Sandy and gravelly 

places. 
Pastures. 

Dry sterile soils. 

High pastures and 

hills. 
Fields and pastures. 

Fields and pastures. 

Fields and pastures. 

Sandy places by the 
sea. 

Moist meadows, pas- 
tures. 



10 



GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 



Table I. — Continued. 



Common Name. 


Botanical Name. 


Time of 
BlossorSing. 


Wild or 
cultv'd. 


Place of growth. 


Nodding Fescue, 


Festuca nutans, . 


July, . 


wild, ■ 


Rocky woods. 


Crested Dog's Tail, . 


Cynosurus cristatus, 


July, . 


cultiv'd. 


Fields and pastures. 


Wlllard's Eromus, . 


Bromus secahnus, 


June, July, . 


" 


Fields, and in grain 


Smooth Brome Grass, . 


Bromua racemosus. 


June, . 


wild. 


crops. 
Grain fields. 


Soft Chess, . 


Bromus mollis. 


June, . 


" 


Fields and pastures. 


Wild Chess, . 


Bromus Kalmii, . 


June, July, . 


" 


Dry open woods. 


Fringed Brome Grass, . 


Bromus ciliatus, . 


July, Aug. . 


" 


Rocky hills, woods. 


Meadow Brome, 


Bromus pratensis, . 


July, . 


" 


Dry arid pastures. 


Common Reed Grass, 
Perennial Rye Grass, 


Phragmites communis, . 
Lolium perenne, . 


September, . 
June, . 


cultiv'd. 


Swamps and edges of 

pouds. 
Fields and pastures. 


Italian Rye Grass, . 


Lolium Italioum, .' 


June, v 


a 


Fields and pastures. 


Bearded Darnel, 


Lolium temulentum, . 


July, . 


- - 


Grain fields. 


Many-flowered Darnel, . 


Lolium multiflorum, . 


June, July, . 


cultiv'd, 


Fields and pastures. 


Couch, or Twitch Grass, 


Triticum repens, . 


June, July, . 


wild. 


Fields and pastures. 


Squirrel-tall Grass, 


Horde um j ubatum , 


June, . 


» 


Salt marshes. 


Lyme Grass, . 


Elymus Virginicus, 


July & Aug. 


" 


Banks of rivers. 


Canadian Lyme Grass, . 


Elymus Canadensis, 


August, 


." 


River banks. 


Slender Hairy Lyme, 


Elymus striatus, . 


July, . 


11 


River banks. 


Bottle-brush Grass, 


Gymnostichum Hystrix, 


July, . 


" 


Moist rocky woods. 


Wood Hair Grass, . 


Aira flexuosa, 


June, . 


It 


Dry rocky hills. 


Hassock Grass, 


Aira caespitosa, 


June, July, . 


" 


Marshy wet bottoms. 


Wild Oat Grass, 


Danthonia spicata. 


June, . 


u 


Dry pastvires. 


Downy Persoon, 


Trisetum mollis, . 


July, . 


" 


Rocky river banks. 


Downy Oat Grass, . 


Trisetum pubescens, 


July, . 


" 


Poor dry pastures. 


Meadow, Oat Grass, 


Avena pratensis, . 


July, . 


" 


Pastures. 


Yellow Oat Grass, . 


Avena flavescens, . 


July, . 


cultiv'd. 


Fields and pastures. 


Tall Jleadow Oat Grass, . 
Meadow Soft Grass, 


Arrhenatherum avena- 

ceum, 
Uolcus lanatus. 


May, June, . 
June, . 


u 


Fields and pastures. 
Fields and pastures. 


Creeping Soft Grass, 


Holcus mollis, 


July, Aug. . 


wild. 


Fields and pastures. 


Seneca Grass, . 


Hierochloa borealis. 


May, . 


" 


Wet meadows. 


Sweet-scented Vernal, . 


Anthoxanthum odoratum 


May, Juno, . 


" 


Fields and pastures. 


Reed Canary Grass, 


Phalaris arundinacea, . 


July, . 


" 


By running streams. 


Common Canary Grass, . 


Phalaris Canariensis, . 


July, August, 


cultiv'd, 


Gardens. 


Millet Grass, . 


MilUum effusum, . 


June, . 


wild. 


Damp cold woods. 


Hairy Slender Paspalum, 


Paspalum setaceum. 


August, 


(1 


Sandy fields by the 
sea. 


Slender Crab Grass, 


Pauicum filiforme, 


August, 


" 


Dry sands on the 
coast." 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



11 



Table I. — Continued. 



Common Name. 


Botanical Name. 


Time of 
Blossoming. 


Wilder 
cultv'd. 


Place of growth. 


Smooth Crab Grass, 
Finger Grass, . 
Agrostis-llke Panic, 
Prolific Panic Grass, 


Panicum glabrum, 
Panicum sanguinale, . 
Panicum agrostoides, . 
Panicum proliferum, . 


August, Sept. 
Aug. to Oct. 
July, August, 
July, August, 


wild, 
II 

11 
u 


Fields and waste 

places. 
Neglected fields and 

gardens. 
Wet meadows and 

river banks. 
Brackish marshes. 


Hair Stalked Panic, 


Panicum capillars. 


August, Sept. 


" 


Dry sandy fields. 


TaU Smooth Panic, 


Panicum virgatum. 


August, 


11 


Moist sandy soils. 


Broad-leaved Panic, 


Panicum latifolium. 


June, July, . 


" 


Damp thickets. 


Barn Grass, . 
Bristly Foxtail, 


Panicum crus-galli, 
Setaria verticillata. 


August, Sept. 
July, Aug. . 


.1 


Rich cultivated 

grounds. 
About farm-houses. 


Bottle Grass, . 


Setaria glauca. 


July, . 


" 


Fields & barn-yards. 


Green Foxtail, 


Setaria viridis. 


July, Aug. . 


" 


Cultivated fields. 


Bengal Grass, . 


Setaria Italica, 


July, Aug. . 


cultiv'd. 


Fields and ditches. 


Bur Grass, 


Cenchrus tribuloides, . 


August, 


wild. 


Sands near the coast 


Gama Grass, . 
Finger-spiked TiVood, 


Tripsacum dactyloides, 
Andropogon furcatus, . 


August, 
September, . 


11 


Moist places on the 

coa.st. 
Sterile, rocky hills. 


Purple-wood Grass, 


Audropogon scoparius, . 


July to Sept. 


" 


Sterile, sandy plains. 


Indian Grass, . 


Sorghum nutans, . 


August, 


" 


Dry soils. 


Indian Millet, 


Sorghum vulgare, . 


July, . 


cultiv'd. 


Cultivated fields. 


Hungarian Millet, . 


Panicum germanicum, . 


- 


11 


Cultivated grounds. 


Chinese Sugar Cane, 


Sorghum saccharatum, . 


July, . 


" 


Fields and gardens. 


Red Clover, 


Trifolium pratense. 


June, July, . 


11 


Fields and pastures. 


White Clover, 


Trifolium repens, . 


May to Sept. . 


" 


Fields and pastures. 


Lucem, .... 


Medicago sativa, . 


June, July, . 


II 


Fields and pastures. 


Sainfoin, .... 


Hedysarum onobrychis, 


June, July, . 


" 


Cultivated fields. 



Rice Grass, Cut Grass, False Rice, (Leersia orpzoides,} 
grows very common in wet swampy places. Stems from two to 
three feet high, panicle erect, spreading with rough, slender 
branches, leaves narrow or long, sheaths exceedingly rough and 
sharp to the hand, drawn from the end backward. Florets oval 
and white, spikelets flat. Flowers in August. Native of the 
Levant. Name from Leers, a German botanist. 

It is a beautiful grass, said to be useful at the South, where it 
is cultivated to some extent, and may be cut several times in a 
season. It is said there to make a valuable hay. Here it is 
regarded as a weed, and thorough draining will destroy it. The 



12 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

fine specimens of this grass in the State cabinet, "were obtained 
at Westborough. 

White Geass, Yirginian Cut Grass, {Leersia virg-inica,} 
is rather smoother than the preceding ; panicle oblong, spiked, 
flowers considerably smaller — white ; found in damp woods. 
Flowers in August. Native of North America. 

Indian Rice, or Water Oats, (zizania aquatica,') is also 
found in swampy borders of streams, in shallow water, and on 
the borders of ponds, and is common. It grows from three to 
nine feet in height, with flat, long, lanceolate leaves. Flowers in 
August, and drops its seed, when ripe, at the slightest touch. 
This furnishes, food for water fowls, and was also used by the 
aborigines for food. Native of North America. 

Meadow Foxtail, (alopecurus pratensis.^ Generic char- 
acteristics : Spikelets, one flowered, glumes compressed and 
keeled, united at the base, lower palea awned on the back, 
upper palea wanting, stamens three, styles generally united, 
stigmas long, panicle compressed into a cjdindrical spike like 
the tail of a fox, from which it derives its name. Native of 
Great Britain. 

The specific characters are, an erect, smooth stem, two or 
three feet high, with swelling sheaths, spikes cylindrical, obtuse, 
equalling the sharp cone-like glumes, awn twisted and twice the 
length of the blossom. The spike not so long as that of Timo- 
thy. Flowers in May, in fields and pastures. Perennial — intro- 
duced. Fig. 6 shows the root, stem or culm, and spike of this 
grass, and Fig. 7 the blossom somewhat magnified. 

The meadow foxtail closely resembles Herds-grass, but may 
be distinguished froni it as having one palea only. The spike 
or head of meadow foxtail is soft, while that of Timothy or 
Herds-grass is rough. It flowers earlier than Timothy, and 
thrives on all soils' except the dryest sands and gravels. It is 
common in some sections of this State, as the western part of 
Worcester County, where it is disliked by many farmers as a 
field grass, being very light in proportion to its bulk. 

It is a valuable grass for pastures, on account of its early and 
rapid growth, and of its being greatly relished by stock of all 
kinds. The stems and leaves are too few and light to make 
it so desirable as a field crop. It thrives best on a rich, 
moist, strong soil, and the quantity of its nutritive matter when 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



13 



raised on such soils is consider- 
ably greater than on sandy soils. 
As a pasture grass, its luxuriant 
aftermath, being in value nearly 
one-fourth greater than its first 
spring growth, recommends it 
still more highly. In this respect 
it is superior to Timothy, the 
aftermath of which is generally 
but slight. For lands designed 
to be laid down to permanent 
pasture it will make a prominent 
part of the seed. Where it 
occurs in fields, it loses largely 
its nutritive value if cut in the 
blossom. It is regarded in Eng- 
land as one of the most valu- 
able of the native pasture grasses, 
forming there a very considerable 
portion of the sward, vegetating 
with great luxuriance, and start- 
ing up vigorously when eaten off 
by stock, producing seed in abun- 
dance, and enduring any amount 
of forcing and irrigation. It does 
not acquire its full perfection and 
hold of the soil until three or 
four years after being sown. The 
aftermath exceeds the flowering 
crop in quantity as well as in 
nutritive matter. The grass loses 
seventy per cent, of its weight in drying, and the hay contains 
about sixty-seven hundredths per cent, of nitrogen. 

The seed of meadow foxtail is covered with the husks of the 
flower, soft and woolly, while the larger valve is furnished with 
an awn. There are five pounds of seed in a bushel, and 76,000 
seeds in an ounce. An insect attacks the seed while it is forming, 
and it is also subject to blight, and hence the seed is some- 
what difficult to procure and is held at a high price. We have 
many grasses superior to it for cultivation, but for permanent 




Pig. 6. Meadow Foxtail. 



14 



GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 



pastures it is superior to Timothy, which is not a suitable pasture 
grass. 

Slender Foxtail, (alopecurus ag-restis.) (Fig. 8.) This 
grass is rarely found here, never, indeed, except when intro- 




Fig. 8. Slender Foxtail. 



Fig. 11. Floating FoxtaU. 

duced in foreign seed, and therefore, scarcely deserves a detailed 
description. It is recognized by its long, slender panicle, taper- 
ing at each end, and the long awn which projects far beyond 



NATURAL HISTORY. 15 

.the palca, (Figs. 9 and 10.) ■ It is distinguished from the 
common meadow foxtail, by its slender panicle, its larger spike- 
lets, its larger ligule and the roughness of the stem and leaves. 
It possesses no particular agricultural value. Flowers in July, 
Annual. Native of Great Britain. 

Floating Foxtail, -(^alopecurus genicidatus.') Stem ascend- 
ing, bent and forming knees at the lower joints, as shown in 
Fig. 1.1; awn projecting beyond the palea, (Fig. 12,) which 
is rather shorter than the obtuse glumes ; anthers linear, upper 
leaf as long as its sheath ; root perennial, fibrous, joints smooth, 
long and narrow, of a purple tinge ; leaves flat, sharp, roughish 
on both sides, serrated on the edge. Inflorescence simple 
panicled ; spikclets numerous, compressed, erect, with a one 
awned floret as large as the calyx. Floret of one palea, awn 
slender. Found in moist meadows, ditches, ponds and slow 
streams, floating on the water. It is distinguished from meadow 
foxtail in having the upper sheath about the length of its leaf, 
and by the projecting awn, while in the meadow foxtail the 
upper sheath is more than twice the length of its leaf. Flowers 
in July and August, 

It is a grass not much relished by stock of any kind, while it 
yields but a small amount of herbage. 

The Wild Water Foxtail, Qalopocurus aristulatus,') also 
grows in wet meadows, but is of no special agricultural valtie. 
Native of Great Britain. 

Timothy, or Herds-grass, (^phleum pratense.') Generic char- 
acters : Panicle spiked, spikelets- compressed, palea shorter than 
the awned glumes, the lower one truncate, usually awnless ; 
styles distinct, filaments hairy, spike dense, rough, or harsh. 
So called from an ancient Greek term signifying cat's tail, the 
name by which it is still most frequently known in Great Britain. 

Specific characteristics : Spikes cylindrical or elongated ; 
glumes hairy on tlie back, tipped with a bristle less than half 
their length leaves long, flat, rough, with long sheaths ; root 
fibrous, often bulbous — perennial. Grows best on moist, peaty 
soils. (Fig. 13.) In Fig, 14 is seen a flower somewhat magni- 
fied. This grass — universally known and highly valued among 
the farmers of New England — is said to have received its name 
more than a century and a half ago from one Herd, of Piscata- 
qua, who is said to have found it growing in a swamp there. 



16 



GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 



The name of Timothy, by which 
it is more generally known over 
the country and abroad, was 
obtained from Timothy Han- 
son, who cultivated it exten- 
sively, and according to some 
accounts, introduced it into 
England, from whence it is 
supposed to have been origi- 
nally brought to this country. 
It forms a large proportion of 
what is called English hay. In 
point of nutritive matter, Sin- 
clair says, the ripe crop greatly 
exceeds the crop at the time of 
flowering. If this is so, it is 
owing in part to the size and 
quantity of its mealy seeds. As 
many as thirty bushels, of forty- 
six pounds to the bushel, have 
been obtained to the acre. 

The results obtained by Prof. 
Way will be found on a subse- 
quent page in the discussion 
upon the nutritive values of the 
various grasses. It may be re- 
marked, in passing, that there 
are many considerations to de- 
termine the time of cutting and 
curing grass, besides its nutri- 
tive value at different stages of 
its growth, as its palatability 
at the time of blossoming, and the greater growth of aftermath 
which is lost by allowing the grass to ripen. This subject will 
form the topic of a subsequent section. 

As a crop to cut for hay it is probably unsurpassed by any 
other grass now cultivated. Though somewhat coarse and 
hard, — especially if allowed to ripen its seed, yet if cut in the 
blossom, or directly after, it is greatly relished by all kinds of 
stock, and especially so by horses, while it possesses a large per- 




Fig. 13. Timothy, or Herds-grass. 



NATURAL HISTORY. 17 

centage of nutritive matter in comparison with other agricultural 
grasses. It is often sown with clover, but the best practical 
farmers are beginning to discontinue this practice, on account 
of the different times of blossoming of the two crops. Timothy- 
being invaribly later than clover, the former must be cut too 
green, before blossoming, when the loss is great by shrinkage, 
and when the nutritive matter is considerably less than at a 
little later period, or the clover must stand too long, when there 
is an equally serious loss of nutritious matter in that. It 
thrives best on moist, peaty or loamy soils of medium tenacity, 
and is not suited to sandy or light gravelly lands ; for though on 
such soils, by great care it can be made to grow and produce 
fair crops, some other grasses are better suited to them and 
more profitable. It grows very readily and yields very large 
crops on favorable soils. I have known instances where its 
yield was four tons to the acre of the best quality of hay, the 
Timothy constituting the bulk of the grass. It is cultivated 
with ease, and yields a large quantity of seed to the acre, vary- 
ing from ten to thirty bushels on rich soils. 

In one respect, perhaps, it must be admitted that this grass is 
inferior to meadow foxtail, and that is in the quantity of its 
aftermath ; for while that of the latter is very great, the after- 
growth of Timothy is but slight, and if allowed to stand too 
long and then mown in a dry time, it starts so slowly as to leave 
the grovmd exposed to the scorching rays of the sun, unless 
indeed there happens to be a rapid growth of clover to protect 
it. The comparative value of this grass will be referred to 
hereafter. It is proper to say in this connection that it is fre- 
quently attacked by an insect apparently just before the time of 
blossoming, which causes the stalk to die. The ravages of this 
insect seem to have increased within the last few years. My 
attention has been repeatedly called, by observing and practical 
farmers, during the last few months, to the very large number 
of dead Herds-grass stalks. 

Rush Geass, or Rough Leaved Vilfa, (yilfa aspera,) and 
Hidden Flowered Yilfa, (vilfa vag-in(Fflora,') are sometimes 
found here ; the former, rarely on dry hills and sandy 
fields, or pine plains ; the latter, somewhat more frequently on 
similar soils and situations, both flowering in September, and 
neither considered of any value for cultivation. The Late 

3 



18 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

Flowering Vilpa, (yilfa serotina,') is somewhat common in 
sandy swamps. It is a very delicate grass, flowering at the 
same time with the preceding. 

Late Drop Seed, (sporobolus se?'otimts,^ is sometimes found 
in low, swampy places, with smooth, slender, flatish stems, 
leaves few 'and slender, panicle spreading, with hairy branches, 
glumes ovate, obtuse and half the length of the palea. Flowers 
in September. It is a delicate grass of no special agricultural 
value. 

Redtop, Finetop, Burden's Grass, Dew Grass, Herds-Grass 
of Pennsylvania and Southern States, (^agrostis vvlgaris,') Fig. 
15. Plants of this genus have one flowered spikelets in a loose 
open panicle ; glumes nearly equal, the lower longer than the 
palege, Avhich are thin and naked ; stamens three — perennial. 

The specific characters are, stems erect, slender, round, 
smooth and polished ; roots creeping, panicle oblong, leaves 
linear, ligule very short, lower palea mostly awnless and three 
nerved. Flowers in July. Pastures and moist meadows very 
common — introduced. The term agrostis was the ancient 
Greek word for field, and was applied to all varieties of grass 
that grew there. 

This valuable grass, so common in all our cultivated fields, 
has been an inhabitant of our soils for more than a century. 
It was called simply English grass by Eliot, Deane and other 
early writers, and by the English, Fine Bent. Indeed, the 
whole genus agrostis is commonly known in England as " Bent 
Grass." This grass is often sown with Timothy and clover, 
in which case, the clover, of course, soon disappears, being 
biennial, when Timothy follows, after which redtop usually 
takes its place, and with some wild grasses forms a close sward. 
In Pennsylvania and States further south, it is universally 
known as Herds-grass — a name applied in New England and 
New York to phleum pratense alone. It is of somewhat slow 
growth, but of good or medium quality. It is suited to moist 
soils, though common to all. This grass is probably rather over- 
rated by us. It makes a profitable crop for spending, though 
not so large a crop is obtained as from Herds-grass. It is a 
good permanent grass, and consequently well suited to our pas- 
tures, standing our climate as well as any other grass. It 
should be fed close in pastures, for if allowed to grow up to 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



19 



seed the cattle refuse it ; and this 
fact seems to show that it is not so 
much relished by stock as some of 
the other pasture grasses. The fact 
that cattle eat any grass greedily in 
the spring, is no proof of its excel- 
lence or nutritious qualities ; since, 
then, all grasses are tender and full 
of juice, and many varieties of both 
grasses and shrubs are readily eaten, 
which at a more advanced stage of 
growth are refused. It is to be re- 
gretted that Prof. Way, in his val- 
uable investigations into the nutri- 
tive value of the grasses, did not 
include this in the list analyzed by 
him. At present we have no accu- 
rate and reliable means of compari- 
son of this with other species of 
grass. The flower of the true redtop 
is seen magnified in Fig. 16. 

This grass goes by various names, 
and is greatly modified by soil and 
cultivation. On a moist, rich soil 
it grows larger than on a poor, thin 
soil, and not only larger 
3ut has a darker, purplish 
color, with a stem varying 
from eighteen inches to 
two feet or two and a half 
feet high ; while on thin, 
Fig. 15. Redtop. Fig. 16. poor, gravclly soils, it sel- 

dom grows over twelve inches, and often not over five or six inches 
high, while it has a lighter color. In the latter situations it 
goes by the name of Finetop, and is universally seen in old, 
dry pastures. In some sections of the State, as in Bristo 
County, it goes by the name of Burden's or Borden's grass, or 
Rhode Island Bent, and is highly esteemed. 

Finetop may be regarded as a variety of redtop, produced by 
the character of the soil. 





f. 



20 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

Dew Grass, White Top, White Bent, English Bent, 
Bonnet Grass, (agrostis alba.') Generic characters same as 
those of recltop. 

Specific characters : Stem erect, round, smooth, polished, 
having four or five leaves with roughish sheaths, striated, upper 
sheath longer than its leaf, crowned with a long, acute, ragged 
ligule ; joints smooth, branches numerous, recumbent, rooting 
at the lower joints where they come in contact with the ground, 
as in Fig. 17 ; panicle somewhat narrower than in redtop, light- 
ish green, or with a slight tinge of purple ; lower or inner 
palca one-half the length of the upper, and shorter than the 
glumes ; five nerved, awiiless — perennial. Native of Europe. 

AN^hite top may be known from redtop by the sheaths being 
rough to the touch from above downwards, and the ligule being 
long and acute, and the keel of the large glume of the calyx 
toothed nearly to the base. In agrostis vulgaris the sheaths 
are smooth, ligule short and obtuse, and the keel of the large 
glume toothed only on the upper part. 

It may be known from Brown Bent, (^agt'ostis canina,') by 
having an inner palea in its floret, while in brown bent the 
inner palea is wanting. This grass is very common on the 
Connecticut River meadows where it appears to be indigenous, 
and is there called the English bent. Fiorin, (^agrostis sto- 
lonifcra,') is only a variety of the white top, or agrostis alba, 
which gained great notoriety some years ago in Ireland and 
England, volumes having been written in its praise, while it 
received the execrations of those who found it troublesome to 
eradicate on account of its creeping and stoloniferous roots. 
This grass belongs peculiarly to moist places which are occa- 
sionally overflowed. Fig. 17 represents it, and Fig. 18, a mag- 
nified flower. This grass is often used in the manufacture of 
bonnets. It is called Dew grass in some sections. 

Brown Bent, or Dog's Bent Grass, (^agrostis canina,) 
another variety of agrostis, has for its specific characters, a 
floret of one palea, sheaths smooth, ligule long, and grows from 
one to two feet high, awnless. The root is perennial and creep- 
ing. The stem is erect, slender, leaves flat and linear. The 
palea shorter than the glume and furnished with a long awn 
on the back, bent ; spikelets at first greenish, afterwards brown 
or slightly purple. Meadows and pastures, and wet, peaty 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



21 



places — introduced. Flowers in 
June and July. It is of no special 
agricultural value. 

Hair Grass, or Fly Away 
Grass, Tickle Grass, (agros- 
tis scabra,') is another species 
belonging- to this genus, with 
a panicle very loose and spread- 
ing, purplish. Flowers in June 
and July. Mainly remarkable 
for the long hairy branches of its 
extremely loose panicle. Com- 
mon in old fields and drained 
swamps. It is of no particular 
agricultural value. Very com- 
mon at the West, in Ohio, Illi- 
nois, Michigan, and about Lake 
Superior. The large, loose pan- 
icles are exceedingly delicate and 
brittle when the plant is ripe and 
dry, and easily break away from 
the stalk when they are blown 
about by the wind, scattering 
their seeds far and wide ; and 
hence it is frequently called 
'' Fly Away Grass." 
This illustrates one of 
the admirable contriv- 
ances of nature for the 
distribution of the 
Fig. 17. Engush Bent. Fig. 18. sccds of grasscs aiid 

other plants ; sometimes by means of birds, sometimes by a 
sort of wing attached to the light seed, and sometimes by the 
force of the wind alone, as in this case, when plants start up 
where no seed had been sown by the hand of man, and often 
to our astonishment. 

Thin Grass, (cigrostis perennans,^ is still another variety of 
agrostis, with a panicle diffusely spreading, pale green ; branches 
short, divided and flower-bearing from or below the middle ; 
found in damp, shaded places. Flowers in June and July. 





22 



GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 



Th3 Alpixs Brown Bent, tho Upright Flowered Bent, and 

many other species of agrostis might be mentioned. Of all 

the species of this genus, the redtop and white top are the most 

common as agricultural grasses among us. 
The FiORiN, {agrostis alba^ 

var. stolonifera latifolia^ 

or Broad Leaved Creeping 

Bent, has been more higlily 

commended in Europe than 

either of these. In the Wo- 

burn experiments which will 

be alluded to, this las-t was 

found to be inferior in nutri- 
tive value to orchard grass 

and meadow fescue, (fcs- 

tuca pratensis,~) and superior 

to meadow foxtail (^alopecu- 

rus prafensis.^ 
The Southern Bent, (^agros- ^^■ 

lis dispar,') (Fig. 19,) has 
been highly extolled in France. 
It is a native of the United 
States ; was at one time highly 
commended in England, but 
■was very soon discarded. It 
furnishes a hay of rather 
coarse quality, yields a large 
produce on good, deep 
sands and calcareous 
soils. It tillers very 
much, and when once 
rooted is very vigor- 
ous and lasting, and 
consequently makes a 
good pasture grass. 
It is very similar in k 
appearance to some 

of the broad leaved varieties of agrostis vulgaris, and is 
said to yield a larger produce than that commonly known as 
redtop. It has stronger and more numerous creeping roots, 





Fig. 19. Southcra^Beut. 



NATURAL HISTORY. 23 

broader leaves and more upriglit leafy stems. It is most fre- 
quently met with in the Southern States and in the south of 
France. Fig. 20 represents the flower of this grass magnified. 

Annual Beard Grass, (^polypogon jnonspeliensis,') is a grass 
which is occasionally found near the coast. It may be known 
by having glumes with awns more than twice their length, 
growing from ten to fifteen inclics high ; stem erect, round, 
and a little rough ; five or six leaves, flat, rather broad and 
acute ; panicle dense, spikclcts one flowered — introduced. It is 
easily distinguished from other grasses by the length of its awns 
or beards. Of no agricultural value. 

Wood Reed Grass, Indian Reed, Reedy Cinna, {cinna 
anindinacea,') has spikelets, one flowered, feathered; glumes 
lanceolate, acute, strongly keeled, paleas like the glumes, short 
awned — perennial ; stems erect and reed-like, three or four feet 
high. The spikelets are green, or of a slight purplish tinge. 
Moist woods and swamps, common. Flowers in July and 
August. Panicle large, hairy, rather dense. A large, rank 
grass, dificring from others in having but one stamen in each 
fiOwer. Of no special agricultural value. 

Drop Seed Grass, (^Mulilenhergia diffusa,^ is a grass which 
derives its generic name from Dr. Henry Muhlenberg, a dis- 
tinguished American botanist, pupil of tlie great Linuasus. It 
is connuonly known in Kentucky and Tennessee by the name 
of " Nimble-will," and there forms a pasture grass of some 
value. Its stems are diffusely branched, from ten to eighteen 
inches high ; panicles slender, contracted, glumes minute, awn 
nearly twice as long as the palea. It is sometimes found on 
dry hills and in woods. Flowers in August and September — 
perennial. Cattle eat it very readily. Not very common. 

Tlicre is another species of this grass, the Multlenhergia 
glomcrota, from one to two feet high, much more common than 
the preceding, with stems upright, somewhat branched ; panicle 
oblong, linear, contracted into an interrupted glomerate spike, 
with long peduncles or flower stalks and awned glumes — peren- 
nial. Flowers in August and September. Common in swamps 
and low grounds. Of no agricultural value. 

The Erect Muhlenbergia, or Awned Brachyelytrum, 
(^Mulilenbergia erecta,^ is often found in rockj woods, on the 
sides of Wachuset Mountain, and many other similar situations. 



24 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

It is a simple, slender grass, two or three feet high; flowers few, 
root perennial, creeping, sheaths downy, leaves broad and flat, 
lanceolate, pointed. Flowers in June. 

The Mexican Muhlenbekgia, (Muhlenberg-ia Mexicana,) 
another species of this genus, has been mistaken by some for 
our fowl meadow. It has an erect stem, two to tln^ee feet 
high, much branched ; panicles lateral and contracted, branches 
densely spiked and clustered, green or purplish; glumes pointed, 
awnless and unequal. It is perennial. Flowers in August. 
Frequently regarded as a troublesome weed in low grounds ; 
somewhat common at the West and frequent here in low grounds, 
the borders of fields, and even in gardens, where its spreading 
roots are difficult to eradicate. Cattle eat it very readily, and 
as it blossoms late in the season, it is of some value. 

The Sylvan Mdhlenbergia, {Muhlenbergia si/Ivatica,') is 
also rather common in low, rocky woods. Its stem is ascend- 
ing, branched, spreading diffusely ; panicles contracted, densely 
flowered ; glumes nearly equal, bristle pointed, lower palea one 
awned, twice or three times the length of the spikelets. Flow- 
ers in August and September. 

The Awnless Muhlenbekgia, (^Muhlenhergia soboli/era,') is 
sometimes found in open, rocky woods, from New England to 
Michigan, and farther south. It grows from one to two feet 
high, with a simple contracted panicle, very slender ; glumes 
long, pointed, nearly equal, root perennial, creeping, woody, 
leaves pale green, sheaths open, ligule wanting. Flowers in 
August and September. 

Still another species, sometimes called Hair Grass, (^Muhlen- 
berg-ia capillaris,') is sometimes, though not often found on 
sandy soils. 

Willdenow's Muhlenbekgia, {Muhlenberg-ia Wi/ldenovii,') 
is also not uncommon in rocky woods, growing about three feet^ 
high, with a slender, simple stem, contracted panicle, loosely 
flowered, glumes sharp pointed, half as long as the lower palea, 
which has an awn from three to four times the length of the 
spikelet. 

None of the grasses of this American genus are of great 
value as agricultural grasses, except as they add considerably 
to the mass qf living verdure which clothes our low lands in 



NATURAL HISTORY. 25 

beauty to delight the eye and swell the heart of the lover of 
nature. 

Blue Joint Grass, (^calamagrostis canadensis.') The gen- 
eric characteristics are, one flowered spikelcts, open panicle, 
contracted or spiked ; glumes keeled, about equal to the paleas, 
around which, at the base, is a thick tuft of white bristly hairs ; 
lower palea generally with a slender awn on the back. 

Specific description : Stems three to five feet high, greyish, 
leaves flat, panicle often purplish, the glumes acute, lanceo- 
late, lower palea not longer than the very fine hairs bearing an 
extremely delicate awn below the middle, nearly equal to the 
hairs. Flowers in July. The blue joint grass is very common 
on low grounds. It is generally considered a valuable grass. 
It is eaten greedily by stock in the winter, and is thought by 
some to be as nutritious as Timothy. • 

The Glaucous Small Reed, (calamagrostis coarctata,) is 
also somewhat common in our wet meadows, open swamps and 
along low river banks. Its stems are from three to five feet 
high, seed hairy, crowned with a bearded tuft ; lower palea 
shorter than the taper-pointed tips of the lanceolate glumes, 
almost twice the length of the hairs, with a rigid, short awn 
above the middle. 

Beach Grass, Sea Sand Reed, Mat Grass, (ammophila arun- 
dinacea,') grows to a height of two or three feet, with a rigid 
culm, from stout roots running often to the distance of twenty 
or thirty feet ; leaves wide, rather short, of a sea green color ; 
panicle contracted into a close, dense spike, from six to twelve 
inches long, nearly white. It is found in the sands of the sea 
shore where its thick, strong, creeping, perennial roots, with 
many tubers the size of a pea, prevent the drifting of the sand 
from the action of the winds and waves, thus forming a barrier 
against the encroachments of the sea. 

This grass is very generally diffused on sea coasts over the 
world, and is found inland on the shores of Lake Superior. 
It has also been cultivated by way of experiment, and with 
success, on the sands at Lowell, and still farther up on the 
banks of the Merrimack River. Though not cultivated for 
agricultural purposes, it is of great value in protecting sandy 
beaches. It is preserved in England and Scotland by act of 
parliament. Flowers in August. 
4 



26 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

In the year 1853, 1 was requested by the late T. W. Harris, 
to make this grass a special study in the course of my observa- 
tions, and since that time I have tried in every way, by personal 
inquiries and by correspondence, to collect whatever there might 
be of interest in relation to it. 

The town of Provincetown, once called Cape Cod, where the 
Pilgrims first landed, and its harbor, still called the harbor of 
Cape Cod, — one of the best and most important in the United 
States, — sufficient in depth for ships of the largest size, and in 
extent, to anchor three thousand vessels at once, owe their 
preservation to this grass. To an inhabitant of an inland 
country, it is difficult to conceive the extent and the violence 
with which the sands at the extremity of Cape Cod are thrown 
up from the depths of the sea, and left on the beach in thou- 
sands of tons l)y every driving storm. These sand hills when 
dried by the sun are hurled by the winds into the harbor and 
upon the town. A correspondent at Provincetown says : 
" Beach grass is said to have been cultivated here as early as 
1812. Before that time, when the sand drifted down upon the 
dwelling-houses, — as it did whenever the beach was broken, — 
to save them from burial the only resort was to wheeling it off 
with barrows. Thus tons were removed every year from places 
that are now perfectly secure from the drifting of sand. Indeed, 
were it not for the window glass in some of the oldest houses in 
these localities, you would be ready to deny this statement, but 
the sand has been blown with such force, and so long against 
this glass as to make it perfectly ground. I know of some 
windows through which you cannot see an object, except- to 
remind you of that passage where men were seen ' as trees 
walking.' " 

Congress appropriated, between the years 1826 and 1839, 
about twenty-eight thousand dollars, which were expended in 
setting out beach grass back of the village, for the protection of 
the harbor. From the seed of this grass it is estimated that 
nearly as much ground has become planted with it as was cov- 
ered by the general government. In 1854, five thousand dol- 
lars were expended most wisely by the general government in 
adding to the work so nobly begun ; and the experience of 
former years was of great value to the efficiency of this latter 
effort. The work of fortification or protection is not yet com- 



NATURAL HISTORY. 27 

plete. The eastern part of the harbor is much exposed to 
injury from the sand which now empties itself by the thousand 
tons every north wind, into the east harbor. Unless there is 
speedily another appropriation from congress, to be applied in 
the direction of East Harbor, it is easy to foretel the fearful con- 
sequences to it. 

" It may be proper to state," says the same writer, " that this 
town does much in the way of ' beach grassing ' by its ' beach 
grass committee,^ whose duty it is to enter any man's enclosure, 
summer or winter, and set out grass, if the sand is uncovered 
and movable. By this means we are now rid of sand storms, 
which were once the terror of the place, being something like 
snow storms, for drifts which were to be removed. Our streets 
are now hardened with clay which has been imported^ and 
instead of its being buried, as it would once have been in a few 
days, I notice that the surveyors have to resort to sprinkling it 
witli sand in wet weather, so effectually has the culture of beach 
grass answered its end. 

" The mode of culture is very simple. The grass is pulled 
up by hand and placed in a hole about a foot deep, and the sand 
pressed down about it. These holes are dug about one foot and 
a half apart. The spring is the usual time of planting, though 
many do this work in the fall or winter. The roots of the 
grass from which it soon covers the ground, are very long. I 
have noticed them ten feet, and I suppose upon high hills they 
extend down into wet sand." 

Many years ago the beach which connects Truro and Province- 
town was broken over, and a considerable body of it swept 
away. Beach grass was immediately planted, and the beach 
was thus raised to sufiicient height, and in some places into 
hills. The operation of it is like that of brush or bushes, cut 
and laid upon the ground, in accumulating snow in a drifting 
wind. The sand is collected around the grass, and as the sand 
rises, the grass also rises to overtop it, and will continue to 
grow, no matter how high the sand hill may rise, and this pro- 
cess goes on over the wholi^ surface of the plantation, and thus 
many acres have been raised far above their original level. 

A committee of the legislature appointed in 1852, to inquire 
into the means of preserving Cape Cod Harbor, in speaking of 
the beach between the ocean on the north, and the channel of 



28 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

East Harbor, — and which is all that prevents the sea from 
breaking over into Cape Cod Harbor, — say : " This tract con- 
sists of loose sand, driven about hj every high wind, which 
throws it up in heaps like snow drifts. The wind, from any 
point from north-east to north-west, drives the sand directly 
from said beach into the channel of East Harbor, and is carried 
by a strong current into the north-east part of Cape Cod Har- 
bor. The ocean on the north is wasting this narrow beach 
away in every storm, and the current in East Harbor channel 
undermining and destroying it on the south. The decay of 
said beach has been on the increase for several years ; it has 
narrowed within seven or eight years, by the tide that runs 
tlirough East Harbor channel, from eight to ten rods ; where 
tlie mail stage travelled only one year since, is now the channel, 
with six feet of water at low tide, and from twelve to fourteen 
feet at high water." 

The first effort made by the State for the preservation of this 
important harbor appears to have been in 1714. The town was 
incorporated in 1727, and was at that time a place of some 
extent, but the inhabitants soon began to leave, and in less than 
twenty years it was reduced to two or three families. After 
the Revolution the place revived, and is now a thriving town. 

The object of the law of 1714 was to arrest the destruction 
of the trees and shrubbery on the province lands, and on the 
preservation of which it was thought the harbor depended, as 
tliey prevented the drifting of the sand. 

In 1824 commissioners were appointed by the State govern- 
ment to examine the subject and report what action was neces- 
sary to prevent the rapid destruction of the harbor. They 
recommended an act to prevent the destruction of beach grass, 
and reported that the sum of thirty-six hundred dollars would 
be necessary to set out that plant, make fences, &c. The legis- 
lature in 1826 applied to congress for that sum, and congress has, 
at different times, made appropriations to the amount of* about 
thirty-eight thousand dollars, which seems to have failed in 
some measure to accomplish the object intended, and East 
Harbor is still rapidly filling up. 

Many years ago it was as customary to warn the inhabitants 
of Truro and some other towns on the Cape every spring, to 



NATURAL HISTORY. 29 

turn out to plant beach grass, as it was in the inland towns to 
turn out and mend the roads." This was required by law, with 
suitable penalties for its neglect, and took place in April. 

A farmer of much practical knowledge of this subject, says : 
" Since the cattle have been kept from the beaches, by the act 
of the legislature of 1826, the grass and shrubs have sprung 
up of their own accord and have, in a great measure, in the 
westerly part of the Cape, accomplished what was intended to 
be done by planting grass. It is of no use to plant grass on 
the high parts of the beach. Plant on the lowest parts and 
they will raise, while the highest places, over which the grass 
will spread, are levelling by the wind. To preserve the beach 
it must be kept as level as possible. 

" Beach grass is of but little value except to prevent our 
loose, sandy beaches from being drifted about by the wind. We 
have but one species, and this is fast spreading over our upland, 
making it useless for cultivation. Land that would produce 
from twenty to twenty-five bushels of Indian corn to the acre,' 
without any manure, twenty-five or thirty years ago, is now 
overrun with beach grass and will produce nothing else. If 
the dead grass is burnt off in the spring, it will make a pretty 
good pasture for cattle and horses. It keeps green longer than 
any other grass we have. It can be cultivated from the seed or 
by transplanting. Our loose, sandy beaches are the most suit- 
able for its growth." 

Beach grass seems to require the assistance of some disturb- 
ing causes to enable it to attain its full perfection. The driving 
winds in some localities, are sufficient, while in other places, 
where it does not thrive so well, it is probable that an iron tooth 
harrow would greatly improve and aid its growth. It has been 
extensively cultivated or propagated from the seed on many 
parts of Cape Cod, on Nantucket, and in fact to considerable 
extent all along our coast. It comes in of itself along Nan- 
tasket beach from seed borne by the tides, probably, from 
the Cape. It has been extensively used, at times, in this coun- 
try, for the manufacture of coarse paper, though if I am rightly 
informed, its manufacture has been discontinued in this State. 
In other countries it is manufactured into door mats and brushes, 
mats for pack-saddles, meal bags and hats, and into ropes for 
various purposes. 



30 GKASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

Mountain Rice, (pryzopsis melanocarpa,') is a grass common 
in rocky woods ; the large white grained mountain rice, (^ory- 
zopsis asperifolia,') common on steep and rocky hill-sides and 
dry woods, and the Smallest Oryzopsis, (pryzopsis canaden- 
sis,^ are sometimes fonnd. Tliese grasses are easily distingnished 
from each other. The first has an awn thrice the length of the 
blackish palea ; the second, an awn two or three times the length 
of the whitish palea ; the third, an awn short, deciduons or 
wanting. The first grows from two to three feet high, the sec- 
ond from ten to eighteen inches. 

Feather Grass, or Black Oat Grass, (stipa avenacea,') is 
som3tlm3s met with in dry, sandy woods, and is collected for 
vases and ornaments, but is of no agricultural value. It rises 
from one to two feet ; its panicle is open, leaves almost bristle 
form, palea blackish, nearly as long as the almost equal glumes, 
awn bent above, twisted below. Flowers in July. 

Poverty Grass, or Three Awned Grass, (aristida dicho- 
toma,) and Slender Three Awned Grass, (aristida g-racilis,') 
are found in old, sandy fields, dry, sterile hill-sides and pine 
barrens, but are of no value for cultivation. One or two other 
species of three awned plants also occur on similar soils, as the 
aristida pnrpurascens and the aristida tuberculosa. None of 
these species are of importance in agriculture. 

■ Fresh Water Cord Grass, (spartina cyiiosuroidcs.^ This is 
found on the banks of streams and lakes, rising to the height 
of from two to four feet, with slender culm, narrow leaves two 
to four feet long, tapering to a point, and spikes of a straw 
color. Flowers in August. 

The S-;\lt Reed Grass, (spartina polyslachya,^ has a stout 
culm from four to nine feet high, broad leaves, roughish under- 
neath and on the margins ; spikes 20 to 50 in number, forming 
a dense, oblong, purplish cluster. It is found on the salt 
marshes. 

Rush Salt Grass, (spartina juncea,') grows from one to two 
feet high, stems slender, leaves narrow, rush-like, and very 
smooth. It is common on salt marshes, and sandy sea beaches, 
and flowers in August. 

Salt Marsh Grass, (spar Una stricta, var. glabra,^ grows 
from two to four feet high, has from five to twelve spikes from 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



31 



two to three inches long ; spikelets crowded and lapping over 
each other. It is common on the coast. 

Sand Grass, (tricuspis purpurea,^ is also found on dry, sandy 
soils, along the coast ; flowering in August and September. It 
is acid to the taste, grows from six inches to a foot high, and 
has numerous bearded joints. 

Orchard Grass, Rough Cocksfoot, (dactylis irhmerata.') 
The generic characters are, spikelets several flowered, crowded 
in clusters, one-sided, panicle dense at the top, branching, 



-^>. 




Fig, 21. Orchard Grasf. 



32 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

glumes two, herbaceous, keeled, long-pointed. Stamens three, 
seed oblong, acute, free. Named from dactylus, a finger. 

Orchard grass flowers in dense tufts. Its stem is erect, about 
three feet high. I have found specimens in good soil, over five 
feet high. Leaves linear, flat, dark green, rough on both surfaces, 
which, with the fancied resemblance of its loose tufts to the 
foot of a barnyard fowl, have given it the common name in Eng- 
land of rough cocksfoot. Root perennial. Flowers in June and 
July. Not uncommon in fields and pastures. It is seen in 
Fig. 21. A magnified spikelet is shown in Fig. 22. 

Tliis is one of the most valuable and widely known of all the 
pasture grasses. It is common to every country in Europe, to 
the north of Africa, and to Asia as well as to America. Its 
culture was introduced into England from Virginia, where it 
had been cultivated some years previously, in 1764, It forms 
one of the most common grasses of English natural pastures, 
on rich, deep, moist soils. It became, soon after its introduc- 
tion into England, an object of special agricultural interest 
among cattle feeders, having been found to be exceedingly pala- 
table to stock of all kinds. Its rapidity of growth, the lux- 
uriance of its aftermath and its power of enduring the cropping 
of cattle, commend it highly to the farmer's care, especially 
as a pasture grass. As it blossoms earlier than Timothy, and 
about the time of red clover, it makes an admirable mixture 
with that plant, to cut in the blossom and cure for hay. As a 
pasture grass it should be fed close, both to prevent its forming 
thick tufts and to prevent its running to seed, when it loses a 
large proportion of its nutritive matter, and becomes hard and 
wiry. All kinds of stock eat it greedily when green. 

Judge Buel, distinguished as a man of taste, said of this 
grass: "I should prefer it to almost every other grass, and cows 
are very fond of it." Elsewhere he says : " The American 
Cocksfoot, or Orchard Grass, is one of the most abiding grasses 
we have. It is probably better adapted than any other grass to 
sow with clover and other seeds for permanent pasture or for 
hay, as it is fit to cut with clover and grows remarkably quick 
when cropped by cattle. Five or six days' growth in summer 
suffices to give a good bite. Its good properties consist in its 
early and rapid growth and its resistance of drouth ; Init all 
agree that it should be closely cropped. Sheep will pass over 



NATURAL HISTORY. 33 

every other grass to feed upon it. If suffered to grow long 
without being cropped, it becomes coarse and harsh. Colonel 
Powell, (a late eminent farmer of Pennsylvania,) after growing it 
ten years, declares that it produces more pasturage than any 
other grass he has seen in America. On being fed very close, 
it has produced good pasture after remaining five days at rest. 
It is suited to all arable soils. Two bushels of seed are requi- 
site for an acre when sown alone, or half this quantity when 
sown with clover. The seed is very light, weighing not more 
than twelve or fourteen pounds to the bushel. It should be cut 
early for hay." 

Mr. Sanders, a well known practical farmer and cattle breeder, 
of Kentucky, says of it : " My observation and experience have 
induced me to rely mainly on orchard grass and red clover ; 
indeed, I now sow no other sort of grass seed. These grasses 
mixed, make the 'best hay of all the grasses for this climate 
(Kentucky ;) it is nutritious, and well adapted as food for stock. 
Orchard grass is ready for grazing in the spring ten or twelve 
days sooner than any other that affords a full bite. When 
grazed down and the stock turned off, it will be ready for re- 
grazing in less than half the time required for Kentucky 
blue grass. It stands a severe drought better than any other 
grass, keeping green and growing when other sorts are dried 
up ; in summer it will grow more in a day than blue grass will 
in a week. Orchard grass is naturally disposed to form and 
grow in tussocks. The best preventive is a good preparation of 
the ground, and a sufficiency of seed uniformly sown. The late 
Judge Peters of Pennsylvania, — who was at the head of 
agricultural improvement in that State for many years, — pre- 
ferred it to all other grasses." 

Orchard grass is less exhausting to the soil than rye grass or 
Timothy. It will endure considerable shade. In a porous 
subsoil its fibrous roots extend to a great depth. Its habit of 
growth unfits it for a lawn grass. Its seed weighs twelve pounds 
to the bushel, and to sow alone, about twenty-four pounds to 
the acre are required to make sure of a good crop. It should 
not be sown alone except for the sake of raising the seed. It is 
worthy of a much more extended cultivation among us. 

Pennsylvanian Eatonia, {Eatonia Pennsylvanica,') is a grass 

6 



34 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

common in moist woods. It has a loose panicle, grows two feet 
high, with short, flat leaves, of a pale green. Flowers in June. 

Rattlesnake Grass, {glyceria canadensis.') The generic 
characteristics of glyceria are, many flowered spikes, mostly flat- 
ish ; glumes two pointed, nearly equal, awnless, the lower one 
obtuse, seven nerved ; roots" creeping — perennial. Wet places 
and standing water. The name of the genus is from a Greek 
word signifying sweet. 

Rattlesnake grass has an oblong, pyramidal, spreading pani- 
cle, with beautifully drooping spikelets, six or eight flowered, 
and long, roughish leaves, which together make it an object of 
interest and search for bouquets and vases. It is very common 
in wet, boggy places, growing from two to three feet high, but 
possesses little or no agricultural value. Flowers in July. 

The Obtuse Spear Grass, (^glyceria obtusa,') has a dense, 
narrowly oblong panicle ; spikelets six or seven flowered, erect, 
swelling ; lower palea obtuse, leaves smooth, as long as the 
stem. This is an aquatic grass, found occasionally on the 
borders of ponds. Flowers in August. Of no agricultural 
value. 

Long Panicled Manna Grass, {glyceria elongata,') is a very 
distinct species ; stems one to three feet high, panicle branch- 
ing, narrowly elongated, recurving, the branches appressed, 
spikelets pale, erect, three to four flowered, lower palea obtuse, 
rather longer than the upper ; stamens two, stigmas compound, 
leaves very long and rough. Flourishes in wet woods and 
swamps. Flowers in June and July — perennial. Of no special 
agricultural value. 

Meadow Spear Grass, Nerved Manna Grass, {poa nerv- 
ata,') is the fowl meadow of some farmers, while the grass most 
commonly called fowl meadow, Qpoa serotina,') goes with them 
under the name of bastard fowl meadow. It has a broad, open 
panicle, six inches in length, with slender branches ; spikelets 
small, ovate, oblong, green ; leaves in two rows like a fan, a 
little rough ; stem a little compressed, one to three feet high. 
It is a native American grass, flowering late in June. The 
nutritive value of this grass, according to Sinclair, is equal at 
the time of flowering and when the seed i« ripe, while the nutri- 
tive matter of the lattermath is said to be greater than that of 
most other grasses. It is a hardy grass, grows best on wet or 




Fig. 23. MEADOW SPEAR GRASS, 



NATURAL HISTORY. 35 

moist grounds, and is said also to succeed on light upland soils. 
It is somewhat coarse, and not particularly relished by cattle, 
though readily eaten in winter. It would be a valuable ingredi- 
ent in a mixture for moist pastures. It is not very common. 
It is seen in Fig. 23, while in Fig. 23 (1) is seen a magnified 
spikelet, and the calyx in (2.) Native of North America. 

The Pale Manna Grass, (^g-lt/ceria pallida,^ grows mostly in 
shallow water, and is very common. Panicle erect with hairy 
branches, spreading, rough ; spikelets few, linear, oblong, five 
to nine flowered; lower palea oblong, minutely ^ye toothed; 
leaves short, sharp pointed and pale green. Flowers in July. 
Culms one to three feet long, creeping at the base. 

One or two other species are referred to this genus, glyceria, 
as the Reflexed Meadow Grass, (^glyceria distans,') found 
in salt marshes, along the coast, and closely allied to the Sea 
Spear Grass, (^poa maritima,') and the Acute Fescue Grass, 
(^glyceria acutiflora,') rarely found in low, wet places. Of no 
value in agriculture. 

Spike Grass, (brizopyrum spicatwn,') is a salt marsh grass, 
with culms or stems in tufts from creeping root-stalks, from ten 
to eighteen inches high. Flowers in August. 

Green Meadow Grass, June Grass, Common Spear Grass, 
Kentucky Blue Grass, &c., Qpoa pratensis.') The character- 
istics of the genus poa, are, ovate spikelets, compressed, flowers 
two to ten in an open panicle, glumes shorter than the flowers, 
lower palea compressed, keeled, pointless, five nerved, stamens 
two or three, seed oblong, free, stems tufted, leaves smooth, flat 
and soft. 

Specific characters : Lower florets connected at the base by 
a web of long, silky filaments, holding the calyx ; outer palea, 
five ribbed, marginal ribs hairy, upper sheath longer than its 
leaf; height from ten to fifteen inches, root perennial, creeping, 
stem erect, smooth and round, leaves linear, flat, acute, rough- 
ish on the edges and inner surface ; panicle diffuse, spreading, 
erect. The plant is of a light green color, the spikelets fre- 
quently variegated with brownish purple. Introduced. Flowers 
in June. Fig. 24 represents this grass, and Fig. 25, a flower 
magnified. 

This is an early grass, very common on the soils of New 
England in pastures and fields, constituting a considerable por- 



36 



GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 



tion of the turf. It varies very 
much in size and appearance 
according to the soil on which 
it grows. In Kentucky it is 
universally known as Blue 
grass, and elsewhere frequent- 
ly called Kentucky blue grass, 
and still more frequently, June 
grass. It has been called by 
some, without much reason, 
the most valuable of all the 
grasses in our pastures. It 
comes into the soil in some 
parts of the country when left 
to itself, and grows luxuriantly 
on soils best suited to it, and 
is relished by all cattle. Its 
creeping root is said by some 
to impoverish the soil. Wher- 
ever it is intended for hay it is 
cut at the time of flowering, 
as if the seed is allowed to 
ripen, more than 
a fourth part of 
the crop is lost. 
In its earliness, 
it is equalled by 
some of the other 
grasses, and in its 
nutritive constit- 
uents by several. 
After being cut 
in summer it starts up slowly. Low says : " It is inferior to the 
rough stalked meadow grass, and it may be questioned whether 
it deserves to be reckoned among the superior pasture grasses." 
It produces but one flowering stem in a year, while many of 
the other grasses continue to shoot up flower stalks, and run to 
seed through the season. On this account it is recommended 
highly for lawns, where uniformity is desired. The produce 
ordinarily is small, compared with other grasses, but the herb- 





rig. 25. 



Fig. 24. June Grass. 



NATURAL HISTORY. 37 

age is fine. It grows well in rather a dry soil, but will grow on 
a variety of soils, from the dryest knolls to a wet meadow. It 
does not withstand our severe droughts as well as some other 
grasses. Its reputation is far higher in this, than in its native 
country, where it is denied by most farmers even a place among 
the grasses to be recommended for cultivation. It endures 
the frosts of winter better, perhaps, than most other grasses ; 
and in Kentucky, where it attains the highest perfection as a pas- 
ture grass, it sometimes continues luxuriant through their mild 
winters. It requires at least two or three years to become well 
set, and it does not arrive at its perfection as a pasture grass 
till the sward is older than that, and hence it is not suited to 
alternate husbandry, or where the land is to remain in grass 
only two or three years and then be ploughed up. In Kentucky, 
the best blue grass is found in partially shaded pastures. A 
well known farmer of that State, in a communication to the 
Oliio Farmer, says : " In our climate, and soil, it is not only the 
most beautiful of grasses, but the most valuable of crops. It 
is the first deciduous plant which puts forth its leaves here ; 
ripens its seed about the tenth of June, and then remains 
green, if the summer is favorable in moisture, during the sum- 
mer months, growing slowly till about the last of August, when 
it takes a second vigorous growth until the ground is frozen by 
winter's cold. If the summer is dry, it dries up utterly, and will 
burn if set on fire ; but even then, if the spring growth has been 
left upon the ground, is very nutritious to all grazing stock, and 
especially to sheep and cattle, and all ruminating animals. 
When left to have all its fall growth, it makes fine winter pas- 
ture for all kinds of grazing animals. Cattle will not seek it 
through the snow, but sheep, mules and horses will paw off the 
snow and get plenty without any other food. When covered 
with snow, cattle require some other feeding ; otherwise they do 
well all winter upon it. 

" It makes also the best of hay. I have used it for that for 
twenty years. It should be £ut just as the seeds beg-in to ripen, 
well spread, and protected from the dew at night by windrowing 
or cocking ; the second evening stacked, with salt, or sheltered, 
with salt also. When properly cured, stock seem greatly to 
prefer it to all other hay. I would not recommend it for 
meadow, especially, however, because the yield is hardly equal 



38 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

to Timothy and clover, and because it is more difficult to cut 
and cure." 

Tlie same writer says : " Any time in the winter, when 
the snow is on the ground, sow broadcast* from three to four 
quarts of clean seed to the acre. With the spring the seeds 
germinate and are very fine' in the sprouts, and delicate. No 
stock should be allowed for the first year, nor until the grass 
seeds in June, for the first time in the second year. The best 
plan is to turn on your stock when the seed ripens in June. 
Graze off the grass, then allow the fall growth and graze all 
winter, taking care never to feed the grass closely at any time." 

"Another eminent cattle breeder speaking of this grass, says : 
" Perennial grasses are the true basis of agriculture, in the 
highest condition of that best employment for man. Grasses 
which are not perennial, are of immense value, especially as 
one of the shifts in the ordinary rotation of. crops, suited to the 
agriculture of the great upper, or northerly portion of our con- 
tinent, all of it above the cotton line. But it is the grasses 
which are perpetual, that I chiefly allude to, and among these, 
emphatically the blue grass, as it is called in the regions where 
it flourishes most. Whoever has limestone land, has blue grass ; 
whoever has blue grass, has the basis of all agricultural prosr 
perity ; and that man, if he have not the finest horses, cattle 
and sheep, has no one to blame but himself. Others, in other 
circumstances, may do well ; he can hardly avoid doing well, if 
he will try." 

By reference to a table on a subsequent page, containing the 
results of the recent investigations of Prof. Way, the distin- 
guished chemist of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, 
it will be seen how inferior this grass is when green, to Timothy, 
for instance, in all the nutritive, flesh-forming, and especially in 
the fat-forming principles which contribute so largely to the 
development and support of the whole animal system. The 
reader is referred to that table, and to another following it, con- 
taining analyses of these plants when dried and freed from 
water, and to the explanatory remarks on the nutritive princi- 
ples of plants, which precede those tables. 

Blue Grass, or Wire Grass, (^poa compressa,') Stems 
ascending, flattened, the uppermost joint near the middle, 
leaves short, bluish green, panicle dense and contracted, ex- 



NATURAL HISTORY. 39 

panding more at flowering ; short branches often in pairs, 
covered with four to nine flowered, flat spikelets ; flowers rather 
obtuse, linear, liairy below on the keel ; ligule short and blunt ; 
height about a foot. It is very common on dry, sandy, thin 
soils and banks, so hardy as to grow on the thin, hard soils 
covering the surface of rocks, along trodden walks, or gravelly 
knolls. It shoots its leaves early, but the amount of its foliage 
is not large, otherwise it would be one of our most valuable 
grasses, since it possesses a large per cent, of nutritive matter. 
Flowers in July. Most grazing animals eat it greedily, and it 
is especially relished by sheep. Its bluish green stems retain 
their color after the seed is ripe. It shrinks less in drying than 
most other grasses, and consequently makes a hay very heavy 
in proportion to its bulk. It is an exceedingly valuable pasture 
grass on dry, rocky knolls and should form a portion of a mix- 
ture for such soils. This should not be confounded with Ken- 
tucky blue grass alluded to above. 

Annual Spear Grass, (^poa anuria, see Fig. 1,) is, perhaps, 
the most common of all our grasses. Its stems are spreading, 
flattened, panicle often one sided, spikelets crowded, three to 
seven flowered, lower palea more or less hairy on the nerves 
below ; leaves of a light green, sword-shaped, flat, often crump- 
led at the margins, as appears in Fig. 1, smooth on both surfaces, 
rough at the edges. Florets not ivebbed, and this distinguishes 
it from the June grass, Qjoa pratensis,^ and its varieties. The 
outer or lower palea of this grass has no hairs on the lateral 
ribs as the poa pratensis has. This modest and beautiful grass 
flowers throughout the whole summer and forms a very large 
part of the sward of New England pastures, producing an early 
and sweet feed, exceedingly relished by cattle. It docs not 
resist the drought very well, but becomes parched up in our 
pastures. 

The Rough Stalked Meadow Grass, {poa trivialis,') though 
not so common as the June grass, (joofl pratensis,^ is still often 
met with, and is found to have webbed florets ; outer palea five 
ribbed, marginal ribs not hairy, ligule long and pointed, stems 
two to three feet high. Distinguished from June grass by hav- 
ing rough sheaths, while in the latter the sheaths arc smooth, 
the ligule obtuse and the marginal ribs of outer palea furnished 
with hairs. The rough stalked meadow grass has a fibrous 



40 GRASSES AKD FORAGE PLANTS. 

.oot, that of the June grass is creeping It Ao-'-^- '" ^f f^ 
meadows where it flowers in July. Introduced. This grass is 
Ten rpTg. 26, wliile Fig. 27 represents a flower somewhat 

magnified. 

This is a valuable gras^ 
to cultivate in moist, 
sheltered soils, possess- 
ing very considerable nu- 
tritive qualities, coming to 
perfection at a desirable 
time, and being exceed- 
ingly relished by cattle, 
horses and sheep. For 
such soils it should form 
a portion of a mixture of 
seeds, producing, in mix- 
ture with other grasses 
which serve to shelter it, 
a large yield of hay, far 
above the average of 
grass usually grown on 
a similar soil. It should 
be cut when in seed and 
not in the flower. Seven 
pounds of seed to the 
acre will produce a good 
sward'. The grass loses 
about seventy per cent, of 
its weight in drying. Its 
hay contains about one 
and sixty hundredths per 
cent, of azote, and the nu- 
tritive qualities of the lat- 
termath exceed very con- 
siderably those of the crop 
cut in the flower or in the 
seed. 




Fig. 26. Rough Stalk Meadow Grass. 



Wood Meadow Grass, {poa nemoralis,-) is met with m Hamp- 
shire and Berkshire counties. It grows from eighteen mches 
to two feet high, has a perennial, creeping root, an erect stem, 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



41 



slender, smooth, the upper sheath no longer than its leaf, with a 
very short ligule, the base of the floret having a silky web suspend- 
ing the calyx, leaves, light green. It is common in moist, shady 
places, and appears as a tall, rank grass, with a long, iinely 
arched panicle. It flowers in June and ripens its seed in 
July. 

Though it has never to my 
knowledge been cultivated in this 
country, it appears to me worthy 
of attention for moist soils. It is 
certainly to be classed among the 
best of shaded pasture grasses, 
furnishing a fine, succulent and 
very nutritive herbage, which 
stock of all kinds are very fond 
of. Hay contains one and sixty- 
four one-hundredths per cent, of 
azote. The grass loses about fifty- 
five per cent, of its weight in 
drying. Fig. 28 represents this 
grass in blossom ; Fig. 29 a mag- 
nified flower. 

The Creeping Sea Meadow 
Grass, or Sea Spear Grass, 
(^poa maritima,^ referred by 
Gray to glyceria, is a beautiful 
grass which appears in and 
around salt marshes, growing 
from six to twelve inches high, 
and having a perennial, 
creeping root. Stem erect, 
round, smooth, leaves most- 
ly folded and compressed, 
roughish on the inner sur- 
face, spikelets linear, with 
from six to ten florets not 
webbed, the outer palea of 
lower floret terminating in 
Grows naturally near the 




Fig. 28. Wood Meadow Grass 



an acute point. 



Fig. 29. 

Flowers in July. 



sea. It is seen in Fig. 30, and its flower magnified, in Fig 31, 



42 



GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 




Fig. 30. Sea Spear Grass. 



I"ig. 32. Common Manna Grass. 



The Floating Meadow Grass, or Common Manna Grass, 
(^poa fluitans,') referred by Gray to glyceria, differs from the 
other species of the poa genus in the general appearance of its 
slender panicle and long, linear spikelets. It grows from fifteen 
inches to two feet high, with a perennial, creeping root, erect, 
round, smooth stem, leaves large, rather long, roughish on both 
sides, lower ones flat, upper ones generally folded ; spikelets 
few, long and linear, as shown in Fig. 32, which represents the 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



43 



plant near the time of flowering. Fig. 33 shows a magnified 
spikelet of this grass, florets not webbed. Flowers late in 
June. 

This grass grows naturally in very moist and muddy places, 
in ditches, on the margins of ponds and streams, and is very 
common. It is capable of cultivation as a permanent pasture 
grass, and its yield compares l^ell with many of the other 
grasses. Its seeds are greedily sought by birds, and in some parts 
of Germany are said to be used as a delicacy in soups and gruels. 

The Wavy Meadow 
Grass, (^poa laxa,^ oc- 
curs rarely on high and 
rocky hills, but is not suf- 
ficiently common or val- 
uable to need description. 
The Water Spear 
Grass, or Reed Meadow 
Grass, (^poa aguatica,') 
grows in wet soils, in 
Hampshire County ; is a 
tall, reedy grass, four or 
five feet high with a pan- 
icle nearly a foot long, dif- 
fuse, with smooth, flexu- 
ous branches. From its 
large size and broad 
leaves it can hardly be 
mistaken for any of the 
other species of poa. 
Its root is perennial, 
creeping, stem erect, 
stout, smooth, joints 
seven, smooth, spike- 
lets numerous, florets 
not webbed. Flow- 
ers in August. Seen 
in Fig. 34, and its 
spikelet in Fig. 35. 
Fig. 34. Water Spear Grasg. Fig. 35. Tliis grass is referred 




44 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

by Gray and others, to ghjceria. It is very common in wet 
meadows and will be easily recognized. More nutritive when 
in flower than when the seed is ripe. It contains a compara- 
tively large per cent, of sugar. Makes a valuable fodder and 
cattle are very fond of it. 

Several other species belonging to this genus, are frequently 
met with, as the Branching Sft]AR Grass, on dry sandy soils, a 
very elegant species, with a large panicle of sea-green spikel^ts ; 
the Hair Spear Grass, also an elegant grass growing on similar 
soils, with a hairy branching panicle over a foot long, leaves 
linear, nerved. But perhaps the most important of all is the 
FoAVL Meadow, or False Redtop, (j>oa serotina.^ [See Frontis- 
piece.] 

The specific characteristics of this species are two to four, 
sometimes five, flowered spikelets, oval, spear shaped, ligules 
elongated, flowers acutish, green, often tinged with purple, roots 
slightly creeping ; wet meadows and banks of streams, very com- 
mon. Flowers in July and August. In long continued moist 
weather the lower joints send up flowering stems. The panicle 
is erect and spreading when in flower, but more contracted and 
drooping when ripe. It is perennial. Native of Germany. ^ 

It early commended itself to the attention of farmers, for 
Jared Eliot, writing in 1749, says of it : " There are two sorts 
of grass which are natives of the country, wliich I would recom- 
mend, — these arc Herds-grass, (known in Pennsylvania by the 
name of Timothy-grass,) the other is Fowl Meadow, sometimes 
called Duck-grass, and sometimes Swamp-wire Grass. It is 
said that Herds-grass was first found in a swamp in Piscataqua, 
by one Herd, who propagated the same ; that Fowl Meadow- 
grass was brought into a poor piece of meadow in Dcdliam, by 
ducks and other wild water-fowl, and therefore called by such 
an odd name. It is supposed to be brought into the meadows 
at Hartford by the annual floods, and called there Swanip-wire 
grass. Of these two sorts of natural grass, the fowl-grass is 
much the best ; it grows tall and thick, makes a more &oft and 
pliable hay than Herds-grass, and consequently will bo more fit 
for pressing, in order to ship off with our horses ; besides it is a 
good grass, not in abundance inferior to English grass. It yields 
a good burden, three loads to the acre. It must be sowed in 
low, moist land, 'this grass has another good quality, which 



NATURAL HISTORY. 45 

renders it very valuable in a country where help is so much 
wanting ; it will not spoil or suffer, although it stand beyond 
the common times for mowing. Clover will be lost, in a great 
measure, if it be not cut in the proper season. Spear-grass, 
commonly called English grass, if it stands too long, will be 
little better than rye straw ; if this outstand the time, it is best 
to let it stand till there comes up a second growth, and then it 
will do tolerably well ; but this fowl-grass may be mowed any 
time from July to October. * * * This I wondered at, 
but viewing some of it attentively, I think I have found the 
reason of it. When it is grown about three foot high it then 
falls down, but doth not rot like other grass when lodged ; in a 
little time after it is thus fallen down, at every joint it puts forth 
a new branch ; now to maintain this young brood of suckers there 
must be a plentiful course of sap conveyed up through the main 
stem or straw ; by this means the grass is kept green and fit for 
mowing all this long period." 

This grass grows abundantly in almost every part of New 
England, especially where it has been introduced and cultivated 
in suitable ground, such as the borders of rivers and intervals 
occasionally overflowed. It will not endure to be long covered 
with water, especially in warm weather. It is well to let a 
piece go to seed, save the seed and scatter it over low lands. It 
makes an excellent grass for oxen, cows and sheep, but is 
thought to be rather fine for horses. It never grows so coarse or 
hard but that the stalk is sweet and tender and eaten without 
waste. It is very easily made into hay, and is more nutritive, 
according to Sinclair, than either foxtail, orcliard grass, or tall 
meadow oat grass. Owing to its constantly sending forth 
flowering stems, the grass of the lattermath contains more 
nutritive matter than the first crop at the time of flowering, 
hence the names fertilis and serotina, fertile and late flowering 
meadow grass. It thrives best when mixed with other grasses, 
and deserves a place in all mixtures for rich moist pastures. 

The Creeping Meadow Grass, (cragrostis reptans,') is fre- 
quently found on the sandy banks of rivers, and is a beautiful 
and delicate grass. Flowering in July and August. Its leaves 
are short, nearly awl-shaped, spikelets smooth, long and lance 
shaped, flowers acute, sheaths loose, striate and a little hairy on 



46 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

the margin, panicles from one to two inches long. Not a culti- 
vated grass. 

The Strong-scented Meadow Grass, (era^rostis pooeoides,^ 
is sometimes found in sandy fields, roadsides, cultivated grounds 
and waste places. Its leaves are flat and smooth, lower sheaths 
hairy, spikelets containing from ten to twenty florets of a lead 
color. It flowers in August and September. Of no importance 
in agriculture. 

A variety of this grass (the megastachpd) is found more fre- 
quently on similar situations ; flowering about the same time ; 
emitting, when fresh, a sharp and disagreeable odor, by which 
it may be known. 

The Slender Meadow Grass, {eragrostis pilosa,} the Hair- 
PANiCLED Meadow Grass, (eragrostis capillaris,') the Hairy 
Meadow Grass, (^eragrostis pectinaeea,} are found in this State," 
but they are of no special importance for cultivation. They all 
occur on sandy, dry, waste places, the last only near the coast, 
and all flower in August and September. 

Quaking Grass, (briza media,') is sometimes met with in the 
eastern part of the State, as in the pastures of Dorchester. Pan- 
icle erect, with very slender spreading branches, and large, pur- 
plish, tremulous spikelets from five to nine flowered, inner glume 
fiuely fringed, entire at the end. (Fig. 36.) In Fig. 37 is 
shown a magnified spikelet. It is avery beautiful, light, slender 
grass, about a foot high, perennial. Flowering in June and 
July. There is an annual, the Large Quaking Grass, (briza 
maxima,) with large many-flowered spikes, cultivated in gardens 
for ornament. 

Small Fescue Grass, (festuca tenella.) The generic char^ 
acters of this genus are oblong spikelets, somewhat compressed, 
from three to many flowered, two very unequal glumes, pointed, 
paleae roundish on the back, from three to five nerved, awn 
pointed or bristle shaped, stamens three, flowers harsh, often 
purplish, panicle nearly erect, leaves narrow, rigid, of a grayish 
green. 

The small fescue has a spike-like panicle, somewhat one-sided, 
from seven to nine flowered, awn of the awl-shaped palea, slen- 
der, leaves bristle-formed, stem slender, six to twelve inches 
high. It flourishes on dry and sterile soils, and is common. 
Flowers in July. 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



47 




Sheep's Fescue, (festuca 
ovina,') is known by its nar- 
row panicle, short, tufted, bris- 
tle-shaped leaves, of a grayish 
color, somewhat tinged with 
red, its two to six flowered 
spikelets, awn, often nearly 
wanting. It grows from six 
to ten inches high in dense 
perennial rooted tufts. It 
forms an excellent pasturage 
for sheep. It flowers in June 
and July, in dry pastures. 
In Fig. 38 is seen the form 
of this grass, and in Fig. 39 
is shown a magnified spikelet 
of it. 




Fig. 36. Quaking Grass. 



Fig. 37 

Meadow Fescue, (festuca 
pratensis,} is one of the most 
common of the fescue grasses. 
It is said to be the Randall 
grass of Virginia. Its pani- 
cle is nearly erect, branched, 
close, somewhat inclined to 
one side ; spikelets linear, 
with from five to ten cylindrical flowers ; leaves linear, of a 
glossy green, pointed, striated, rough on the edges ; stems round, 
smooth, from two to three feet high, roots, creeping, perennial. 
Its radical or root leaves are broader than those of the stem, 
while in most other species of fescue the radical leaf is generally 
narrower than those of the stem. Flowers in June and July, 
in moist pastures and near farm houses. 



48 



GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 




rig. 41. 
Fig. 38. Sheep's Fescue. Fig. 40. Meadow Fescue. 

This is an excellent pasture grass, forming a very consider- 
able portion of the turf of old pastures and fields, and is more 
extensively propagated and diffused by the fact that it ripens 
its seed before most other grasses are cut, and sheds them to 
spring up and cover the ground. Its long and tender leaves 
are much relished by cattle. It is never or rarely sown in this 
country, notwithstanding its great and acknowledged value as a 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



49 



pasture grass. If sown at all, it should be in mixture with other 
grasses, as orchard grass, rye grass, or common spear grass. 
It is of much greater value at the time of flowering than when 





Fig. 43. -^i 




rig. 45. 




Fig. 42. Tali Fescu* Grass. 



Fig. 44. Red Fescue. 



the seed is ripe. It is said to lose a little over fifty per cent, of 
its weight in drying for hay. It is shown in Fig. 40, and its 
magnified spikelet in Pig. 41. 

The Tall Fescue Grass, (festuca elatior,') is also found pretty 

7 



50 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

commoiilj in moist meadows and around farm houses. Its 
panicle is contracted, erect, or somewhat drooping, with short 
branches, spreading in all directions ; spikelets crowded, with 
five to ten flowers, rather remote, ol^long, lanceolate ; leaves 
flatish, linear, acute ; stems two to four feet high, root perennial, 
fibrous, somewhat creeping and foi'mhig large tufts. Fig. 42 
shows this plant at the time of flowering, and Fig. 43 a magni- 
fied spikelet of the same. Flowers in June and July. 

■ It is a nutritive and productive grass, growing naturally in 
shady woods and moist, stiff soils. Cattle are very fond of it. 
Said by some to be identical with the meadow fescue. 

The Hard Fescue Grass, (^festuca duriuscula,') is also found 
to some extent, though not so commonly as the meadow fescue. 
It is by some regarded as a variety of the sheep's fescue, taller 
and with a panicle more open, leaves flat, and spikelets four 
to eight flowered. It grows from one to two feet high. Flow- 
ers in June, in pastures and waste grounds. 

The Red Fescue, (^festuca rubra,^ by some regarded as only 
a variety of the preceding, is one of the largest of the varieties 
of fescue. Its leaves are broadish, flat, root extensively creep- 
ing, and throwing out lateral shoots. Found in dry pastures 
near the sea shore, in sandy soils. It is a grass of better 
quality than some of the other varieties, but never cultivated 
here as an agricultural product. The color of its leaves is some- 
what more grayish than the preceding and often tinged with 
red. It is shown in Fig. 44, while its spikelet is seen magnified 
in Fig. 45. 

The Slender Spiked Fescue, (^festuca loliacea,') is a species 
nearly allied to the tall fescue and possesses much the same 
qualities. It grows naturally in moist, rich meadows, forming 
a good permanent pasture grass, but as it is met with only very 
rarely, if ever, among American grasses, and is of no value for 
cultivation, it scarcely deserves a more extended notice. Fig. 
46, a specimen of this plant in blossom. Fig. 47, a magnified 
flower of it. 

The Nodding Fescue, {festuca nutans,') is also rarely met 
with in rocky woods, and needs only to be mentioned. 

Crested Dog's Tail, {cynosiir'us cristaius.') (Fig. 48.) This 
grass is rarely found here, and scarcely needs description. 
Its spikes are simple, linear, spikelets awnless, stems one foot 



NATURi\JL HISTORY. 



51 




rig. 4G. Slender Fescue. 



Fig. 48. Crestea Dog's Tail. 



high, stiff, smooth, root perennial, fibrous and tufted. Flowers 
in July. It is said by some to be a valuable agricultural grass, 
but cattle seldom eat it, on account of its wiry stems ; but on 
dry, hard soils and hills pastured with sheep, it is of value as a 
hardy, permanent grass. It is used in the manufacture of 
straw plait. Fig. 49 represents a magnified spikelet of the 
crested dog's tail. 

Willard's Bromus, Chess, Cheat, (bromus aecalinus.') The 



oli 



GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 



characteristics of this genus (^bi'onius') are, spikelets from five 
to many flowered, panicled, glumes not quite equal, shorter 
than the flowers, mostly keeled, — the lower, one to five, the 
upper, three to nine nerved, — palea3 herbaceous, lower one 
convex on the back, or compressed, keeled, five to nine nerved, 
awned or bristle pointed from below the tip, upper palea at 
length adhering to tlic groove of the oblong grain, fringed on 
the keel, stamens three, styles attached below the apex of the 
ovary. The grasses of this genus are coarse, with large spike- 
lets, somewhat drooping generally when ripe. 

The specific characteristics are, a spreading panicle slightly 
drooping, spikelets ovate, smooth, of a yellowish green tinge, 
showing the racliis when in seed, and holding from six to ten 
rather distinct flowers. In the spikelet exhibited in the cut, (Fig. 
50,) seven can be distinctly counted, the eighth or ninth imper- 
fectly developed can often be found ; stems erect, smooth, 
round, from two to three feet high, bearing four or five leaves 
with striated sheaths ; the upper sheath crowned with an obtuse, 
ragged ligule, the lower sheaths soft and hairy, the hairs point- 
ing downwards ; joints five, slightly hairy, leaves flat, soft, linear, 
more downy on the upper than on the under side, points and 
margin rough to the touch. Summit of the large glume mid- 
ivay betiveen its base and the summit of the second floret, a 
constant mark of distinction from bromus racemosus and bromus 
mollis. (Fig. 50,) (b.) Fig. 51 shows the form of the spike- 
let a few days before coming to maturity. Flowers in June and 
July. It has no relation to Italian rye grass. 





Fig. 49. 



Fig. 50. 



Fig. 51. 



Distinguished from bromus arvensis in the spikelets having 
fewer florets, and the outer palea being rounded at the summit. 

Nothing more clearly illustrates the want of accurate knowl- 
edge of subjects intimately connected with agriculture, and 
immediately afiFecting the farmers' interests, than the history of 



NATURAL HISTORY. 53 

the introduction and propagation of this worthless pest to our 
grain fields. It has been heralded in the papers, in connection 
with the names of distinguished friends of agriculture, with the 
earnest hope that it might receive extended trials.' Monstrous 
prices have been charged and paid by the unsuspecting farmer 
for its seed, in many cases four and five dollars a bushel, a 
pledge behig exacted that it should not be allowed to go to seed, 
for a reason, probably, which will shortly appear. Committees 
of agricultural societies have been invited to examine and report 
upon it ; and in a letter now lying before me, the disinterested 
propagator very kindly offers to put up ten barrels of ]jromus 
seed for $100, saying, that " of course the earliest applicants will 
be sure of obtaining till all is gone, which would scarcely give a 
barrel to a State. * * Years must elapse before the country 
can be supplied as it now is with Herds-grass and clover seed. 
My ofFcr invites co-operation and participation in the profits and 
pleasures now available " — for taking advantage of the honest 
credulity of the public ? 

A quantity of bromus seed was sent to the State Farm for the 
purpose of experiment, with a letter with directions to sow with 
clover in the spring of 1855. The crop was cut Avhile yet green, 
and before the grass had developed sufficiently to distinguish it 
with certainty. This present year (185'6) directions were given 
to let it stand later in the season. While engaged in the collec- 
tion and study of specimens in the course of the summer, I 
gathered samples of this grass when it was still immature, the 
spikelets having very much the appearance indicated in Fig. 
51. Without giving it a very close examination at the time, I 
pronounced it the bromus arvcnsis, which at that stage of its 
growth it very much resembles. A few days after, I was aston- 
ished to see it develop into Chess (bromus secalinus.^ This 
was the first ripe specimen of Willard's bromus I had seen. I 
examined it with care with a strong magnifying glass, and to 
avoid the possibility of mistake, I submitted specimens of it to 
Prof. Gray, of Cambridge, and to Prof. Dewey, of Rochester, 
New York, both of whom, after examination, pronounced it 
genuine chess. 

But Mr. Willard having quoted from the report of a commit- 
tee of an agricultural society in which it was said that if a "jury 
of Gows should confirm the opinion of Mr. Willard as to the 



54 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

superiority of the grass, then will the agricultural community 
owe him a debt of gratitude for having introduced to notice here 
a species of grass which is highly beneficial on light sandy soils, 
much supeilor to any other species, and producing most abun- 
dantly on land of better quality," I very recently directed this 
grass to be submitted to sitch a jury, empanelled and kept under 
the charge of Mr. L. P. Chamberlain at the State Farm, which 
unhesitatingly pronounced a verdict in accordance with the 
facts, which were as follows : — 

The grass which was first submitted for comparison with the 
bromus was the Reed Canary grass, (^phalaris arvtidinacea,') a 
grass of very slight nutritive and palatable qualities, as will 
appear by reference on a subsequent page to the careful analysis 
made of it at my request by Prof. E. N. Horsford, of the Law- 
rence Scientific School, Cambridge. The English hay used was 
such as commonly goes by that name among farmers, made up 
of Timothy and Rcdtop mainly, of fair quality. The meadow or 
swale hay was taken from a wet meadow, made up of coarse 
swale grasses, such as are common in eastern Massachusetts, 
and pass under the term of " meadow hay." The bromus was 
carefully picked out from all other grasses. The two kinds 
given in each trial were put into tiie same crib, but separated by 
a partition. 

First trial — Bromus and reed canary grass. There was no 
choice. Both were eaten alike till they were gone. 

Second — Bromus and English hay ; preferred English hay. 
■ Third — Bromus and swale hay ; " swale. 

Fourth — Bromus and oat straw ; " bromus. 

Fifth — Canary grass and English hay ; " English hay. 

Sixth — Canary grass and swale ; " swale at once. 

Seventh — Canary grass and oat straw ; " oat straw. 

Eighth — Canary grass and cornstalks ; " cornstalks. 

Ninth — Bromus and cornstalks. Ate nearly alike of each till 
both were gone. ' ^ 

Tenth — Bromus and millet. Chose the millet and did not 
touch the bromus. 

This is a true transcript of the verdict of that intelligent jury, 
and it is precisely what I should havp anticipated from what I 
knew of the grasses. The trial by jury should be final. 

Bis unnecessary to say that " Cheat" is a troublesome weed 



NATURAL HISTORY. 55 

to the farmer, especially when it appears in his grain fields. It 
is an early grass, but the quantity of herbage, and especially its 
quality, make it unfit for cultivation. Indeed, the only species 
of any value, or at all fit for cultivation, belonging to this large 
genus of grasses, is the bromus arvensis, and even that has been 
discarded from modern agriculture. 

I have been thus minute in speaking of this grass, because I 
have felt it my duty to disabuse the minds of farmers with regard 
to it, a duty in which I have recently, and since the above was 
written, been anticipated by my friend, Sanford Howard, Esq., 
author of a valuable paper on the Grasses, in the Transactions 
6f the New York State Agricultural Society, for 1855. 

I have but little acquaintance with, and no prejudice against, 
Mr. Willard, but regret exceedingly that he or any one else 
should make a mistake so serious to the community, and take 
so much pains to propagate " cheat." Fortunately the plant is 
annual. The fact of its having been cut before it was ripe, in 
1855, accounts for its growing on the same piece in 1856. 

Smooth Brome Grass, or Upright Chess, (bromus race- 
mosus,') has a panicle erect, simple, rather narrow, contracted 
when in fruit. Flowers closer than in the preceding, lower 
palea exceeding the upper, bearing an awn of its own length. 
Stem erect, round, more slender than in chess, sheaths slightly 
hairy. In other respects it is very much like Willard's bromus, 
but may always be distinguished from it as well as from bromus 
arvensis, in the summit of the large glume being half-way be- 
tween its base and the summit of the tliird floret, on the same 
side ; whereas in Willard's bromus the summit of the large 
glume is half-way between its base and summit of the second 
floret. This character is constant, and offers the surest mark of 
distinction. It is common in grain fields. Flowers in June. 
It is worthless for cultivation. 

Soft Chess, or Soft Brome Grass, (bromus mollis,^ is some- 
times found. . I procured beautiful specimens of it at Nantucket, 
where it was growing in the turf with other grasses on a sandy 
soil near the shore. Its panicle is erect, closely contracted in 
fruit, spikelcts conical, ovate, stems erect, more or less hairy, 
with the hairs pointing downwards from twelve to eighteen 
inches higli, joints four or five, slightly hairy, leaves flat, stri- 
ated, hairy on both sides, rough at the edges and points ; sum- 



56 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

mit of the large glume midway between its base and the apex 
of the third floret, by which it is always distinguished from 
Willard's bromus. Flowers in June. Birds are fond of the 
seed, which are large and ripen early. Of no value for culti- 
yation. 

The Wild Chess, (bromns kalmii,} is another species, found 
often in dry, open wood-lands. It has a small, simple panicle, 
with the spikelets drooping on hairy peduncles, seven to twelve 
flowered and silky ; awn only one-third the length of the lance- 
shaped flower, stem slender, eighteen inches to three feet high, 
leaves and sheaths hairy. Flowers in June and July. Of no 
value for cultivation. 

Fringed Brome Grass, (^bromus ciliatus,') is often found in 
woods and on rocky hills and river banks. It has a compound 
panicle, very loose, nodding, spikelets seven to twelve flowered, 
flowers tipped with an awn half to three-fourths their length, 
stem three to four feet high, with large leaves. Flowers in 
July and August. Of no value for cultivation. 

The Meadow Brome Grass, (bromus pratensis,') is a peren- 
nial weed in the corn fields of England, and is only recom- 
mended in any part of Europe for dry, arid soils, where nothing 
better will grow. Fig. 52 represents this grass, and Fig. 53 a 
magnified spikelet. 

Not one of the brome grasses is worthy of a moment's 
attention as a cultivated agricultural grass, and the cleaner the 
farmer keeps his fields of them the better. 

The Common Reed Grass, (phragmites communis,^ is a very 
tall, broad-leaved grass, with the flower in a large terminal pani- 
cle. It looks at a little distance very much like broomcorn ; 
stem five to twelve feet high. It grows on the borders of 
ponds and swamps. It is said to be the largest grass in the 
United States. It occurs in several localities in Franklin 
County, and it is not uncommon in the eastern part of the 
State. Flowers in September. 

Perennial Rye Grass, common Darnel, Qolium perenne.') 
Generic characters — spikelets many flowered, solitary on each 
joint of the continuous rachis, placed edgewise. Specific charac- 
ters — stem erect, smooth, fifteen inches to two feet high, root pe- 
rennial, fibrous, joints four or five, smooth, often purplish, leaves 
dark green, lanceolate, acute, fiat, smooth on the outer surface 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



57 



m 

i 



Fig. 53. 




Fig. 55. 



Fig. 52. Meadow Bromo Grass. 



Fig. 64. Rye Grass. 



and roughisli on the inner, glnme much shorter than the spike- 
let, flowers six to nine, awnless. Flowers in June. Shown in 
Fig. 54. Fig. 55 represents a magnified spikelet of this plant. 
This grass has had the reputation in Great Britain, for many 
years, of being one of the most important and valuable of the 
cultivated grasses. It is probably much better adapted to a wet 
and uncertain climate, than to one subject almost annually to 
droughts, which often continue many weeks, parching up every 
8 



I 

58 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

green thing. There is, perhaps, no grass, the characteristics of 
which vary so much from the influences of soil, chmate and cul- 
ture as perennial rye grass. Certain it is that this grass lias 
been cultivated in England since 1674, and in the south of France 
from time immemorial. It is admitted to be inferior in nutri- 
tive value to orchard grass, (dactylis glomerata^^ when green. 

Whenever it is cut for hay, it is necessary to take it in the 
blossom, or very soon after, since otherwise it becomes hard and 
wiry, and is not relisliod by stock of any kind ; and it changes 
very rapidly after blossoming, from a state in which it contains 
the greatest amount of. water, sugar, &c., and the least amount 
of woody libre — into the state in which it possesses the least 
amount of water, sugar, &c., and the greatest amount of woody 
fibre and other insoluble solid matter. A specimen analyzed 
about the 20th of June, and found to contain 8J|^ per cent, of 
water and 18| per cent, of solid matter, was found only three 
weeks later to contain only 69 per cent, water, and 31 per cent, 
solid matter. It is undoubtedly a valuable grass, and worthy of 
attention ; but it is not, to be compared, for the purposes of New 
England agriculture, to Timothy or to orchard grass. .It pro^ 
duces abundance of seed, soon arrives at maturity, is relished 
by stock, likes a variety of soils, all of which it exhausts ; lasts 
six or seven years, and then dies out. * 

Italian Rye Grass, (lolvum italicum,') has been recently 
introduced into this State, and is now undergoing experiment 
which will assist in determining its value for us. It diflers 
from perennial rye grass in the florets having long, slender 
awns, and from bearded darnel, (lolium temidentum,') in the 
glumes being shorter than the spikelets. This difference will 
be manifest on reference to Fig. 56, and Fig. 57, which repre- 
sents a magnified spikelet. It turfs less than the perennial rye 
grass, its stems are higher, its leaves are larger and of a lighter 
green, it gives an early, quick and successive growth till late in 
the fall. 

To say that it is, or would be, the best grass in our climate 
and on our soils, would be altogether premature ; but it has 
the credit abroad of being equally suited to all the climates of 
Europe, giving more abundant crops, of a better quality, and 
better relished by animals than the perennial rye grass. It is 
one of the greatest gluttons of all the grasses either cultivated 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



59 




Fig. 56. Italian Rye Grass. 



Fig. 59. 



Fig. 58. Many-flowered Darnel. 



or wild, and will endure any amount of forcing by irrigation or 
otherwise, while it is said to stand a drought remarkably well. 
The soils best adapted to it seem to be moist, fertile and tena- 
cious, or of a medium consistency ; and on such soils it is said 
to be one of the best grasses known to cut green for soiling, 
affording repeated luxuriant and nutritive crops. I have not 
seen enough of it to speak from personal observation or experi- 
ence of the comparative profit of this grass and Timothy for 
cultivation here, but its comparative nutritive value is well 



60 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

known from the thorough and reliable analyses of Prof. "Way. 
By these it appears that 100 parts of Timothy grass, as taken 
from the field, contain 57.21 per cent, of water, 4.86 per cent, 
of albuminous or flesh forming principles, 1.50 per cent, of 
fatty matters, 22.85 per cent, of heat producing principles, such 
as starch, gum, sugar, &c., 11.32 per cent, of woody fibre, and 
2.26 of mineral matter or ash, while 100 parts of Italian rye 
grass taken from the same kind of soil and in the same condi- 
tion, green, contained 75.61 per cent, of water, 2.45 of albu- 
minous or flesh forming principles, .80 of fatty matters, 14.11 
of heat producing principles, starch, gum and sugar, 4,82 of 
woody fibre, and 2.21 of mineral matter or ash. Of these, the 
flesh forming principles, fatty matters, and heat producing 
principles, are, of course, by far the most important ; and in 
all these our favorite Timothy very far excels the Italian rye 
grass, showing a nutritive value nearly double. Nor has the 
Italian rye grass any advantage over Timothy or Herds-grass in 
the dried state, though the difference is by no means so 
marked, the former dried at 212° Fahrenheit containing 10.10 
per cent, of flesh forming principles, the latter 11.36 ; the 
former containing 3.27 per cent, of fatty matter, the latter 
8.55 ; the former containing 57.82 per cent, of heat forming 
principles, the latter 53.35. 

There are 432,000 seeds in a pound of Italian rye grass and 
from thirteen to eighteen pounds in a bushel. 

The Bearded Darnel, Qolium temidentum,') is sometimes 
found in our grain fields, with its glume equalling the five to 
seven flowered spikelets, and awn longer than the flower. Its 
grain is poisonous — almost the only instance knovrn among the 
grasses. 

The Many-Flowered Darnel, (lolkim mnltijlorwn,') is, per- 
haps, the most showy species of rye grass, cultivated. It is 
but very rarely, if ever, met with here, though it was intro- 
duced from France to England about thirty years ago, and is 
cultivated to some extent. Fig. 58 shows the appearance of 
this grass, and Fig. 59 a magnified spikelet. It is very nearly 
allied, if not identical with Italian rye grass. 

Couch Grass, Quitch Grass, Twitch Grass, Dog Grass, 
Chandler Grass, &c., (triticum repens.} The chief generic 
marks of this grass are, three or several flowered spikelets, 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



61 



compressed, with the flat side towards the rachis ; glumes nearly 
equal and opposite, nerved, lower palea like the glumes convex 
on the back, awned from the tip, upper flattened, stamens 
three ; mostly annuals, but others are perennials, to which the 
couch grass belongs. The specific characters of couch grass are, 
roots creeping extensively, stem erect, round, smooth, from one 

to two or two and a half feet 
high, striated, having five or six 
flat leaves with smooth, striated 
sheaths ; the joints are smootli, 
the two uppermost very remote, 
leaves dark green, acute, upper 
one broader than the lower ones, 
roughish, sometimes hairy on the 
inner surface, smooth on the lower 
half. Inflorescence in 
spikes. Flowers in 
June and July. In- 
troduced fromEurope. 
(Figs. 60 and 61.) 

This plant is gen- 
erally regarded by 
farmers as a trouble- 
some weed, and ef- 
forts are made to get rid of it. Its 
long, creeping roots, branching in 
every direction, take complete pos- 
session of the soil and impoverish 
it. When green, however, it is 
very much relished by cattle, and 
if cut in the blossom it makes a 
nutritious hay. Dogs eat the 
leaves of this grass and those of 
one other species for their medici- 
nal qualities in exciting vomiting. 
I have seen acres of it on the Con- 
necticut River meadows, where it 
had taken possession and grew 
luxuriantly, and is called wheat grass, from its resemblance 
to wheat. It goes in different parts of the State by a great 





FiR. 61. 



Fig. GO. Couch, or Twitch Grass. 



62 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

variety of names, as Quake grass, Quack grass, Squitch grass. 
It is important to destroy it if possible, and the means of doing 
it will be alluded to on a subsequent page. 

Squirrel-tail Grass, (Jwrdeum jiibatum,') is widely diffused 
over our salt marshes. Its specific characters are a slender stem, 
smooth, about two feet high, with rather short leaves, and low, 
lateral, abortive, neutral flowers on a short pedicel, short awned, 
the perfect flower bearing an extremely long awn about the 
length of the similar hairy glumes, all spreading. It is com- 
mon on moist sands and marshes on the sea shore. Flowers in 
June. 

Tlie common two-rowed barley, (Jwrdeum distichu7n,~) belongs 
also to the same genus as well as the common four or six-rowed 
barley, (Jiordeum imlgare.') 

Lyme Grass, Wild Rye, (elymus virginicus,^ is frequent 
along the banks of rivers. Its generic characteristics are two to 
four spikelets at each joint of the rachis, all fertile, each one to 
seven flowered, glumes ])oth on one side of the spikelct, paleaj 
two, lower one usually awned, mostly perennial, some species 
annual. 

Specific description : Spike upright, dense and thick on a short 
peduncle usually included in the sheath ; two or three spikelets 
together, two or three flowered, smooth, shortly awned, stamens 
three, stems stout, from two to three feet high, leaves broad 
and rough. Flowers in July and August. Of no special value 
as an agricultural grass. 

Canadian Lyme Grass, (elymus cayiadensis .^ Spike rather 
loose and curving at the extremity, spikelets mostly in pairs of 
three to five, long awned, rough, hairy flowers, the lance awl- 
shaped glumes, tipped with shorter awns, stem three to four feet 
high, root creeping, leaves broad, flat, linear, sheaths smooth and 
ligule short. Flowers in August. It is common on the banks 
of rivers. 

Slender Hairy Lyme Grass, (elymus striatus,') is sometimes 
found in rocky woods and on the banks of streams, as the most 
slender and smallest flowered species of this genus. It flowers 
in July, and is so rare and of so little value as an agricultural 
grass, as not to need further description. 

Upright Sea Lyme Grass, (elymus arenarius.') This grass, 
which much resembles beach grass, grows from two to five 



NATURAL HISTORY. 63 

feet high, with a perennial long creeping root, stem erect, round, 
smooth, leaves long, narrow, hard, greyish, pointed, grooved, 
rolled in, smooth behind and rough on the inner surface. It 
flowers in July. Differs from the common beach grass in having 
a short obtuse ligule, and spikelets without footstalks, of three 
or four florets, while beach grass has a l»ng and pointed ligule, 
and spikelets with footstalks, and of only one floret. 

Sinclair calls this grass the sugar cane of Great Britain. It 
contains a large quantity of saccharine matter, and it is proba- 
ble that mixed with beach grass, as it is in Holland, it would be 
valuable to cut up and mix with common hay for winter feed. 
It is used precisely as beach grass is here, to prevent the 
encroachments of the sea, and to arrest the drifting of sand. It 
is not found growing wild in this country aS beach grass is. I 
have cultivated it> by way of a partial experiment, on Nahant 
Beach, and it has been sown in other parts of the country. 

Bottle-brush Grass, (.gymnostichiim hi/strix,') is found rather 
commonly in moist rocky woodlands, and along shaded banks 
of streams, and may be known by its loose upright spike and 
spreading spikelets, smooth sheaths and leaves, smoothisli flow- 
ers tipped with an awn three times their length. Flowers in 
July. 

• Wood Hair Grass, or Common Hair Grass, (^aira flexuosa,) 
is a common grass on our dry and rocky hills, and road sides, 
and high upon Wachuset Mountain. The generic name is the 
Greek aira, darnel, or tares, and its characteristics are, two 
flowered spikelets, in an open difiuse panicle ; flowers both per- 
fect, shorter than the glumes, hairy at the base, lower palea 
thr^e to five nerved, awned on the back, grain oblong, smooth. 

Specific characters : Stems slender, one to two feet high, 
nearly naked, leaves dark green, often curved, bristle-formed, 
branches of the panicle hairy, spreading, mostly in pairs, lower 
palea slightly toothed, awn starting near the base, bent in the 
middle, longer than the glumes, which are purplish — perennial. 
Flowers in June. This plant is sometimes found 3,500 feet 
above the level of the sea. Sheep eat it readily. Of no value 
for cultivation. Fig. 62 represents this grass in blossom, and 
Fig. 63 a magnified flower of it. It contains when dry but .03 
per cent, of nitrogen. 

Hassock Grass, (^ah'a cccspitosa,') also belongs to tliis genus 



64 



GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 



aira. Stems erect, round, roiigli- 
isli, in close tufts, leaves flat, 
linear, acute, with roughitsh stri- 
ated sheaths, upper sheath longer 
than its leaf, panicle pyramidal 
or oblong, large, at firstflrooping, 
afterwards erect, with branches 
spreading in every direction ; 
awn barely equalling the palea, 
outer palea of lower floret shorter 
than the glumes, membranous, 
jagged or four-toothed on the 
summit, hairy at the base, with 
slender awn rising from a little 
a,bove the base, and extending 
scarcely above the palea. Dis- 
tinguished from aira flexuosa in 
the awn of the lower floret not 
protruding beyond the glumes of 
the calyx. In aira flexuosa the 
awn of the lower floret protrudes 
more than one-third its length 
beyond the glumes. 

It has an unsightly look in 
fields and pastures, on 
account of its growing in 
tvifts or clusters or has- 
socks. Cattle seldom 
touch it. Prefers stiff or 
marshy bottoms, where 
the water stands. June. 

Water Hair Grass, 
(aiVa aquatica.^ Fig. 6-1. This grass Mr. Curtis calls the 
sweetest of the British grasses, and equal to any foreign one. Its 
stems and leaves, when green, have a sweet and agreeable taste 
like that of liquorice. Water fowls are said to be very fond of 
the seeds and the fresh green shoots. Cattle also eat it very 
readily. It is strictly an aquatic, but can be cultivated on 
imperfectly drained bogs and muddy bottoms. Not common. 
It flowers in July. 




Fijr. 62. Wood Hair Grass. 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



65 





Fig. 64. Water Hair Grass 



Fig. 66. Downy Oat Grass. 



Wild Oat Grass, White Top, (danthonia spicata,') is com- 
mon in dry, sunny pastures, with a stem one foot high, slender, 
with short leaves, narrow sheaths, bearded ; panicle simple, 
spikelets seven flowered, lower palea broadly ovate, loosely 
hairy on the back, longer than its awl-shaped teeth — perennial. 
Flowers in June. It is called white top in some localities, but 
is not the grass most commonly known by that name — the 
agrostis alba. 

9 



66 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

Downy Persoon, (trisetum mollis,^ is a grass with dense 
panicles, much contracted, oblong or linear, awn bent or diverg- 
ing, lower palea compressed, keeled, leaves flat and short ; 
found on rocky river banks and mountains, about one foot 
high. It flowers in July. Of no agricultural value. 

The Downy Oat Grass, (trisetum pubescens,') is a very hardy 
perennial grass, naturalized on chalky soils, and on such soils 
its leaves are covered with a coating of downy hairs which it 
loses when cultivated on better lands. It is regarded as a good 
permanent pasture grass on account of its hardiness and its being 
but a slight impoverisher of the soil, and yielding a larger per 
cent, of bitter extractive than other grasses grown on poor, light 
soils. It is therefore recommended abroad as a prominent 
ingredient of mixtures for pastures. It flowers early in July. 
Fig. 65 represents this plant as it appears in blossom. Formerly 
classed as avena pubescens. 

Meadow Oat Grass, (avena pratensis, Fig. 66,) is a peren- 
nial grass, native of the pastures of Great Britain, growing to 
the height of about eighteen inches. It furnishes a hay of 
medium quality. Flourishes best on dry soils. Flowers in July. 
Figs. 67 and 68 represent the flowers of this grass magnified. 

The Yellow Oat Grass, (avena Jlavescens, now generally 
classified as trisetum Jlavescens,') can scarcely, perhaps, be 
regarded as naturalized here. It is a perennial plant of slow 
growth and medium quality, furnishing a hay containing about 
1.79 per cent, of azote or nitrogen ; suitable for dry meadows 
and pastures. It is sometimes regarded as a weed, growing 
about eighteen inches high. It fails if cultivated alone, but 
succeeds with other grasses, and is said to be the most useful 
for fodder, of the oat grasses. It grows best with the crested 
dog's tail and sweet scented vernal. It contains a larger pro- 
portion of bitter extractive than most other grasses, and for that 
reason is recommended by some English writers as a valuable 
pasture grass. It flowers in July. Fig. 69 represents this 
grass, and Fig. 70 a flower of it magnified. 

Tall Meadow Oat Grass, or Tall Oat Grass, (arrhena- 
therum avenaceum,') is the avena elatior of Linnceus. Specific 
characters : Spikelets open paniclcd, two flowered, lower flower 
staminate, bearing a long bent awn below the middle of the 
back ; leaves flat, acute, roughish on both sides, most on the" 



NATURilLL HISTORY. 



67 




Fig. 66. Mcado-w Oat Grass. 



Fig. 70. 



Fig. 69. Yellow Oat Grass. 



inner; panicle leaning slightly on one side, glumes very 
unequal ; stems from two to three feet high, root perennial, 
fibrous, sometimes bulbous. It is readily distinguished from 
other grasses by its ha^^ng two florets, the lower one having a 
long awn rising from a little above the base of the outer palea. 
Introduced. Flowers in June and July. Shown in Fig. 71. 
A magnified spikelet is seen in Fig. 72. 

This is the Ray grass of France. It produces an abundant 



68 



GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 




rig. 71. Tall Meadow Oat Grass. Fig. 75. Fig. 73. Meadow Soft Grass. 

supply of foliage, and is valuable either for hay or for pasture, 
and has been especially recommended for soiling purposes, on 
account of its early and luxuriant growth. It is often found on 
the borders of fields and hedges, woods and pastures, and some- 
times very plenty in mowing lands. After being mown it shoots 
up a very thick aftermath, and on this account, partly, is 
regarded as nearly equal for excellence to the common foxtail, 
(alopecurus pratensis.') 



NATURAL HISTORY. 69 

It grows spontaneously on deep, sandy soils, when once 
naturalized. It has been cultivated to some extent in New 
England, and is esteemed by those who know it, mainly for its 
early, rapid and late growth, making it very well calculated as 
a permanent pasture grass. It will succeed on tenacious clover 
soils. 

Meadow Soit Grass, Velvet Grass, (Jiolcus lanatus,') has 
its spikelets crowded in a somewhat open panicle, and an awn 
with the lower part perfectly smooth. The generic characters 
are, two flowered spikelets jointed with the pedicels, glumes 
boat-shaped, membranaceous, inclosing and exceeding the 
flowers ; lower flower perfect, its lower palea awnless and point- 
less, upper flower staminate only, bearing a stout bent awn 
below the apex. Stamens three ; grain free, slightly grooved. 

This species grows from one to two feet high, stem erect, round, 
root perennial, fibrous, leaves four or five, with soft, downy 
sheaths, upper sheath much longer than its leaf, inflated, ligule 
obtuse, joints usually four, generally covered with soft, downy 
hairs the points of which are turned downwards ; leaves pale 
green, flat, broad, acute, soft on both sides, covered with deli- 
cate slender hairs. Inflorescence compound panicled, of a 
greenish, reddish or pinkish tinge ; hairy glumes, oblong, 
tipped with a mmute bristle. Florets of two paleae. Flowers 
in June. Introduced. In Fig. 73 is seen a drawing of this 
grass, and in Figs. 74 and 75, its flowers magnified. 

This beautiful grass grows in moist fields and peaty soils, but 
I have found it on dry, sandy soils on Nantucket, and specimens 
have been sent me from Boxford and other places where it grew 
on upland fields, and was cultivated with other gi-asses. It is 
productive and easy of cultivation. It is of but little value 
either for pasture or hay, cattle not being fond of it. "When 
once introduced it will readily spread from its light seeds which 
are easily dispersed by the wind. It does not merit cultivation 
except on poor, peaty lands, where better grasses will not suc- 
ceed. This grass loses about .63 of its weight in drying, and 
the hay contains about 1.92 per cent, of nitrogen. 

The Creeping Soft Grass, (Jiolcus mollis, Fig. 76,) not yet 
naturalized here. It is of no value, and is regarded as a 
troublesome weed. Distinguished from the preceding by its 



70 



GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 





Fig. 77. 




Fig. 78. 





Fig. 76. Creeping Soft Grass. 



Fig. 81. 



Fig. 79. Sweot-scented Vernal. 



awned floret and its creeping root. The flowers of this grass 
are seen magnified in Figs. 77 and 78. 

Seneca Grass, or Vanilla Grass, (Jiierochloa borealis,') 
has spikelets three flowered, flowers all with two paleae, 
branches of the panicle smooth ; grows from twelve to eighteen 
inches high. Stems erect, round, smooth, panicle somewhat 
spreading, rather one sided, leaves short, broad, lanceolate, 
rough on the inner side, smooth behind ; spikelets rather large. 



NATURAL HISTORY. 71 

Grows in wet meadows. Flowers in May. Common and gen- 
erally diffused, but of no value for cultivation, on account of 
its powerful, creeping roots and very slight spring foliage. It 
derived its generic name, hierochloa, holy grass, from two 
Greek words, signifying sacred grat from the fact that it was 
customary to strew it before the doors of the churches on festi- 
val and saint's days, in the north of Europe. In Sweden it is 
sold to be hung up over beds, where it is supposed to induce 
sleep. 

Sweet Scented Vernal Grass, (^anthoxaiithum odoratum.') 
Specific characteristics: Spikelets spreading, three flowered, 
lateral flowers neutral, with one palea, hairy on the outside and 
awned on the back ; glumes thin, acute, keeled, the upper 
twice as long as the lower ; seed ovate, adhering to the palea 
which incloses it ; root perennial. Flowers in May and June. 
Stems from one and a half to two feet high. Introduced from 
Europe. This grass is seen in Fig. 79. 

This is one of the earliest spring grasses, as well as one of 
the latest in the autumn. It is almost the only grass that is 
fragrant. It possesses a property peculiar to this species, or 
possessed by only a few others, known as coumarin. It is 
said to be this which not only gives it its own aromatic odor, 
but imparts it to other grasses with which it is cured. The 
green leaves when bruised give out this perfume to the fingers, 
and the plant may thus be known. The grass has but little value 
of itself, its nutritive properties being slight ; nor is it much 
relished by stock of any kind, but as a pasture grass on almost 
all soils, and with a large mixture of other grasses, it is very 
valuable for its early growth, and this gives it the character of 
a permanent pasture grass. 

It is not uncommon in our pastures and road sides, growing 
as if it were indigenous. I have found fine specimens of it on 
dry soils at Nantucket and elsewhere. 

The aftermath or fall growth of this beautiful grass is said 
to be richer in nutritive qualities than the growth of the spring. 
Though it is pretty generally diffused over the country, it is 
only on certain soils that it takes complete possession of the 
surface and forms the predominant grass in a permanent turf, 
as it is said to do in some sections around Philadelphia. The 
flavor of the spring butter sold in that city is ascribed by some 



72 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

to the prevalence of this grass. There seems to be nothing 
inconsistent in this supposition, since it is well known that dis- 
agreeable flavors are often imparted to the milk and the butter 
by the substances taken as food by the cow, as turnips, for 
instance, or cabbages, or cauliflowers ; and if an objectionable 
flavor may be imparted by one substance, it is reasonable to sup- 
pose an opposite flavor may be given by another. Much, of 
course, depends on the manufacture ; as poor butter is found in 
the Philadelphia market, as in any other, while as good could 
be, and is found, in the Boston market as any in the world. 
The best butter, I learn on inquiry, is as expensive in the 
former city as elsewhere,, while it is true that a high price 
will command and obtain a good article wherever the art of 
butter making is at all understood. 

I am informed by Dr. Emerson, of Philadelphia, to whom I 
am indebted for valuable specimens of this grass, that he has 
made experiments in flavoring other grasses with a slight 
addition of benzoic acid in the form of an essence, previous to 
feeding them out to milch cows, and that the flavor of the best 
Philadelphia spring butter was thus imparted to the butter 
made from them. 

A curious and beautiful peculiarity is exhibited in the seeds of 
this grass, by which they are prevented from germinating in 
wet weather after approaching maturity, and thus becoming 
abortive. The husks of the blossom adhering to the seed when 
ripe, and the jointed awn by its spiral contortions, when afi'ected 
by the alternate moisture and dryness of the atmosphere, act 
like levers to separate and lift it out from the calyx even before 
the grass is bent or lodged and while the spike is still erect. If 
the hand is moistened and the seeds placed in it, they will 
appear to move like insects, from the uncoiling of the spiral 
twist of the awns attached to them. 

The flowers of the sweet scented vernal grass are seen in 
Figs. 80 and 81. There are 923,200 seeds in a pound, and 
eight pounds in a bushel. It cannot be said to belong to the 
grasses useful for general cultivation. 

Reed Canary Grass, (^pkalaris arundinacea.^ Generic 
characteristics : Spikelets crowded in a dense or spiked panicle, 
perfect flower flattish with two neutral rudiments of flowers, one 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



73 



on each side at its base, awnless, two shining paleae, closely- 
inclosing the smooth, flattened grain ; stamens three. 

Specific description : panicle very slightly branched, clustered, 
somewhat spreading when old, but not so much generally, as 
appears in Fig. 82 ; glumes wingless, rudimentary florets hairy, 

stem round, smooth, erect, from two 
to seven feet high, leaves five or six in 
number, broad, lightish green, acute, 
harsh, flat, ribbed, central rib the most 
prominent, roughish on both surfaces, 
edges minutely toothed, smooth, stri- 
ated sheaths. Flowers in July. Gix)ws 
on wet grounds by the sides of rivers 
and standing pools, best suited to 
somewhat tenacious soils. 

A beautiful variety of this species 
is the Ribbon or Striped Grass of 
the gardens, familiar to every one. 
The reed canary grass grows in the 
utmost luxuriance at the State Farm, 
at Westborough, and produces a large 
and early crop. It will bear cutting 
two or three times in a season, but if 
not cut early, the foliage is coarse. 
Cattle are not fond of it at any stage 
of its growth, but if cut early and 
well cured, they will eat 
it in the winter if they 
can get nothing better. 
For some experiments 
with this hay in compari- 
son with others, see p. 61. 
This grass is common 
in low, rich soils where 
the water is either stand- 
ing or sluggish, and is not 
unfrequently produced by 
transplanting the roots of the striped grass into suitable soils. 
In one instance within ipy knowledge, it came in and produced 
a,n exceedingly heavy crop, simply from roots of ribbon grass 

10 





Fig. 82. Reed Canary Grass. 



Fig. 83. 



74 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

which had been dug up from a garden and thrown into the 
brook to get them out of the way. Several other instances of 
a smilar nature have also come to my notice. One farmer has 
propagated it extensively in his wet meadows by forcing the 
ripe seed panicles into the mud with his feet. As the stripe of 
the ribbon grass is only accidental, dependent on location and 
soil, it constitutes only a variety of the reed canary grass and 
loses the stripe when transferred to a wet and muddy soil. 

The cut, Fig. 82, was made from a specimen too far advanced 
to show this grass as it ordinarily appears ; the panicle or head 
is too spreading and not sufficiently long. I have fine speci- 
mens with panicles three times as long as appears in the draw- 
ing, and more in the shape of a spike of Timothy. 

To ascertain the exact nutritive qualities of this grass when 
cured as hay, a careful analysis has been made at my request, 
by Prof. E. N. Horsford, of Cambridge, with the following 
result : Of water, the specimen contained 10.42 per cent. ; ash, 
5.31 per cent. ; nitrogen, .55 per cent. ; nitrogenous ingredi- 
ents, flesh forming principles, 3.53 per cent. ; woody fibre, 
starch, gum, sugar, &c., 80.73 per cent.* It will be seen by 

* The following are the details of this valuable analysis : — 

1st. Of the Leaves stripped from the Culms or Stalks ; 

2d. Of the Stalks from which the Leaves and Joints were removed ; and 

3d. Of the Joints. 

Weight of different portions of the Plant. 

Grammes. Av. Qr's. 
Leaves of four Stalks, air-dried, weighed, 2.9239 1 



2.8989 



3,6592 



.4624 



" " " " " 2.8740 

Four Stalks, without Joints, or Leaves, air-dried, weighed, . . 4.1107 
" " " " " . . 3.2018 

Joints of four Stalks, air-dried, weighed, .5161 

" " " " 4088 

Average Total, 7.0205 Grammes. 

Average weight of Stalks with Leaves and Joints, 1.7551 Grammes. 

Water Determination. 

I. Of the Leaves, .9234 grammes lost at a temperature of 212° Fah. .1014 grammes — equal to 
10.98 per cent. 
II. Of the Stalks, 1.9836 grammes lost at 212° Fah. .1902 grammes— equal to 9. 58 per cent. 
III. Of the Joints. 2.4529 grammes lost at 212° Fah. .2630 grammes — equal to 10.72 per cent. 

Ash Determination. 

I. Of the Leaves, air-dried, 2.9239 grammes gave .2590 grammes Ash — equal to 8.85 per cent. 
II. Of the Stalks, air-dried, 4.1167 grammes gave .1475 grammes Ash — equal to 3.58 per cent. 
III. Of the Joints, air-dried, .5161 grammes ga e .0181 grammes Ash — equal to 3.50 per cent. 



NATURAL HISTORY. 75 

reference to a subsequent page, containing analyses by Prof. 
Way, that this grass is very far inferior to many of the grasses 
examined by him. The panicles of this grass if allowed to 
stand after the time of flowering, become filled with ergot, or 
long, black spurs, issuing from between the glumes, and occu- 

None of the above ashes effervesced with acid, indicating the absence of 
carbonates. They gave but the faintest reaction for lime. Indeed micro- 
scopic, as -well as chemical examination, showed the Ash to be composed 
almost entirely of Silica. 

Nitrogen Determination. 

I. Of the Leaves, 1.4370 grammes, air-dried, gave .2600 grammes of Platino-Chloride of Ammo- 
nium — equal to 1.13 per cent, of Nitrogen, and 7.21 per cent, of Nitrogenous ingredients. 
n. Of the Stalks, air-dried, 1.6009 grammes gave .0205 grammes Platino-Chloride of Ammo- 
nium — equal to .08 per cent, of Nitrogen, and .51 per cent, of Nitrogenous ingredients. 
III. Of the Joints, air-dried, 2.4529 grammes gave .1789 grammes Platino-Chloride of Ammo- 
uium — equal to .45 per cent, of Nitrogen, and 2.87 per cent, of Nitrogenous ingredients. 

The preceding results, in tabular form, appear as follows : — 
Relative Weight of different portions. 

Average 
Leaves of four Stalks, .... 2.8989 grammes. 

Four Stalks, 3.6592 

Joints of four Stalks, 4624 

100.00 
Average weight of one plant without the roots, .... 1.7551 grammes. 

Percentages. 



of one 


percentage. 


.7247 grammes. 


41.29 


.9148 


52.12 


.1156 


6.59 









Nitrogenous 


Woody Fibre, Starch, 


Water. 


Ash. 


Nitrogen. 


Ingredients.* 


Sugar, &c. 


10.98 


8.85 


1.13 


7.21 


72.96 


9.58 


3.58 


.08 


.51 


86.33 


10.72 


3.50 


.45 


2.87 


82 91 



Leaves, . 

Stalks, . 
Joints, . 

For comparison as to the relative nutritive values, there follow some deter- 
minations made of hay from several localities by Henneberg and Thos. Way. 

Ilay analyzed gave Nitrogen. Nitrogenous Ingredients. 

For Leaves, . . . 1.13 

For Stalks, . . .08 }- 5.71 per cent.f 3.53 per cent. 

For Joints, ... .45 



Clover, 


1.57 


10.01 


Hay, No. 1, saline soil. 


1.49 


9.51 


" No. 2, May, 


1.39 


8.87 


" " June, 


1.49 


9.51 


" " October, . 


1.70 


10.85 



It will be seen that some of the samples contain nearly three times as much 
of Nitrogenous Ingredients as the sample submitted for examination, and it 
will be inferred from this consideration that, other things being equal, the hay 
at the head of the list is decidedly inferior in nutritive value. 

* Three parts of Nitrogen correspond with 19.16 parts of Nitrogenous Ingredients, as vegetable 
albumen, fibrin and casein. 

t Estimated according to percentages of different parts. 



76 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

pying the place of grain. This, if there were no other reason, 
would be sufficient to determine that it should be cut at or 
before the time of flowering. I have never seen rye worse 
affected than my specimens of this grass are. The effects of 
this mysterious disease are well known. The noxious power 
it exerts on the system of animals which receive even a small 
portion of it, is oftentimes dreadful, producing " most hor- 
rible gangrenes, rotting of the extremities, internal tortures 
and agonizing death ; it has been known to slough and kill not 
a few human beings who have accidentally or inadvertently 
eaten grain or flour infected with it." 

The flower of the reed canary grass is shown in Fig. 83. 
The variety called striped grass, (color ata,^ is exceedingly 
hardy and may be propagated to any extent by dividing and 
transplanting the roots. In moist soil it spreads rapidly and 
forms a thick mass of fodder which might be repeatedly cut 
without injury, though it is of little value for feeding stock. 

The Common Canaey Gkass, {phalaris canariensis ,') is cul- 
tivated in gardens, and to some extent in fields and waste 
places for the sake of the seed for the canary bird. It has a 
spiked, oval panicle, glumes wing-keeled ; rudimentary flowers 
smooth and half the length of the perfect one. Flowers in 
July and August. 

Millet Grass, (millium effusum^ is found growing com- 
monly in moist, shady woods, mountain meadows, and on the 
borders of streams. Panicle widely diffuse, compound, glumes 
ovate, very obtuse, leaves broad and flat, thin, root perennial, 
flower oblong. Flowers in June. Introduced. Of no value 
for cultivation, the foliage possessing but slight nutritive quali- 
ties. The seeds are sought by birds. It will thrive trans- 
planted to open places. 

Hairy Slender Paspalum, (jpaspalum setaceum^ has an 
erect or decumbent, slender culm, from one to two feet high, 
leaves and sheaths hairy, spikes slender, smooth, mostly solitary 
on a long peduncle, spikelets narrowly two rowed. Flowers in 
August. It is found on sandy fields and plains near the coast, 
and is rather common. 

Slender Crab Grass, (jpanicum jiliforme^ is another -species 
of the subgenus digitaria, or finger grasses, and resembles the 
last somewhat, but the upper glume equals the flower, while the 



NATURAL HISTORY. 77 

lower is nearly wanting, and the spikes are more erect. It 
flourishes on sandy, dry soils, especially near the coast. Flow- 
ers in August. Of no value for cultivation. 

Smooth Crab Grass, (^paniciim g'labrum,') resembles the 
last, with the spikes digitate, three to four, spreading, rachis 
flat and thin, spikelets ovoid. It is common in cultivated 
grounds, waste places, and on sandy fields. Flowers in August 
and September. A troublesome weed. 

Finger Grass, Common Crab Grass, (panicum sanguinale .') 
The panic grasses are widely spread and common over the State. 
The generic characters are, two flowered panicled spikelets, 
flowers with or without awns, glumes two, lower one short or 
minute, the upper long as the fertile flower, upi>er flower per- 
fect, closed, flattish, awnless, stamens three. 

The stems of the finger grass are from one to two feet high, 
erect, spreading, leaves and sheaths hairy, spikes four to fifteen, 
digitate, upper glume half the length of the flower, lower one 
small. This grass grows on waste or neglected cultivated 
grounds and gardens, and yards, and is generally regarded as a 
troublesome weed. Litroduced. Flowers from August to 
October. 

Agrostis-like Panic Grass, (panicum ag-rostoides,') differs 
from the preceding species in having the stems flattened, 
upright, two feet high, leaves long, sheaths smooth, spikelets on 
the spreading branches crowded and one sided, ovate, oblong, 
acute, purplish. It is common on wet meadows and borders of 
rivers. Flowers in July and August. 

Prolific Panic Grass, (^panicum proHferum,^ grows on 
brackish marshes and meadows, and is common along the coast. 
It sometimes appears on dry places. Cattle are fond of it. 
It differs from the preceding in having culms thickened, succu- 
lent, branched and bent, ascending from a procumbent base, 
and spikelets appressed, lance-oval, of a pale green color. 

Hair Stalked Panic Grass, (^panicum capillare,') grows in 
sandy soils and cultivated fields every where. Its culm is 
upright, often branched at the base, and forming a tuft, sheaths 
flattened, very hairy, panicle pyramidal, hairy, compound and 
very loose, spikelets scattered on long pedicels, oblong, pointed. 
Flowers in August and September. 

Tall Smooth Panic Grass, (^panicum virgatum.} Stems 



78 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

upright, three to five feet high, leaves very long, flat, panicle 
large, loose and compound, branches spreading when grown, 
and drooping, spikelets scattered, oval, pointed, glumes usually 
purplish. Grows pretty commonly in moist, sandy soils, and 
flowers in August. 

Broad-leaved Panic Grass, (panicttm latifoHum.') This is 
a grass with a perennial, fibrous root, and stem from one to two 
feet high, and leaves broad, long, taper-pointed, smooth or 
slightly downy, branches of panicle spreading, spikelets long, 
obovate, downy. Flowers in June and July. It is common in 
moist thickets and woods. Of no value for cultivation. 

The Hidden-flowered Panic Grass, (panicum clandestinum,') 
the Yellow Panic Grass, (^panicum xanthopIiT/sum,') the Poly- 
MORPHUS Panic Grass, (^panicum dichotomum,') the Few-flow- 
ered Panic Grass, (^panicum depavperatum,') the Warty- 
flowered Panic Grass, Qpanicum veri'ucosum,') are sometimes 
found, the first, in low thickets and along the banks of rivers, 
not very common ; the second, on dry and sandy soils, pine 
plains, rare ; flowers in June ; the third, in dry and low grounds, 
not very common, flowers in June and July ; the fourth, on 
dry, sandy hill-sides, more common than the preceding ; the 
fifth, in sandy swamps, near the coast. None of these are 
valuable for cultivation, nor are they troublesome as some of 
the preceding species of panic are, on account of their places 
of growth. 

Barn Grass, or Barnyard Grass, (^panicum crus-galH,') is 
more common. Its spikes are alternate and in pairs, sheaths 
smooth, rachis bristly, stem from two to four feet high, stout, 
erect, or somewhat procumbent, leaves half an inch broad, 
panicle dense, pyramidal, glumes acute, awn variable in length 
and sometimes wanting, outer palea of the neutral flower, 
usually awncd ; one or two varieties have rough or bristly 
sheaths. It grows on moist, rich or manured soils and along 
the coast in ditches. Flowers in August, September and Oc- 
tober. 

Some experiments have been made to cultivate this common 
species in the place of millet, to cut for green fodder. It is rel- 
ished by stock and is very succulent and nutritive. 

Hungarian Millet, Moha de Hongrie, (panicum germani- 
num,^ has been cultivated to some extent in this State, from 



NATURAL HISTORY. 79 

seed received through the Patent Office. It is an annual forage 
plant introduced into France in 1815, where its cultivation 
has become considerably extended. It germinates readily, 
withstands the drought remarkably, remaining green even when 
other vegetation is parched up, and if its development is 
arrested by dry weather, the least rain will restore it to vigor. 
It has numerous succulent leaves which furnish an abundance 
of green fodder, very much relished by all kinds of stock. 

It flourishes in somewhat light and dry soils, though it attains 
its greatest luxuriance in soils of medium consistency and well 
manured. It may be sown broadcast and cultivated precisely 
like other varieties of millet. This millet is thought to contain 
a somewhat higher percentage of nutriment than the common 
millet, though I am not aware that it has been analyzed. A 
practical farmer of Worcester county says of it : "I have 
raised the " Moha de Hongrie," on a small scale only. In my 
garden it has grown thick and fine. 

" As it is a leafy plant and remains green until its seeds 
mature, I think it may prove valuable for fodder, both green 
and dry. It grows and matures in about the same time as the 
common millet. 

" I have now one bushel of seed, grown on six square rods. 
This quantity will enable me to test it practically, another 
season." 

This plant is seen in Fig. 84, which gives a correct repre- 
sentation of it. 

The Bristly Foxtail, {setaria verticillata,') is a grass some- 
times, though rarely, found about farm houses. It has cylin- 
drical spikes two or three inches long, pale green, somewhat 
interrupted with whorled, short clusters, bristles single or in 
pairs, roughened or barbed downwards, short. Not cultivated. 

Bottle Grass, sometimes called Foxtail, (^seiaria g-lauca.') 
This is an annual with a stem from one to three feet high, 
leaves broad, hairy at the base, sheaths smooth, ligule bearded, 
spike two to three inches long, dense, cylindrical, bristles six to 
eleven in a cluster, rough upwards, perfect flower wrinkled. 
The spike is of a tawny or dull orange yellow when old. Flow- 
ers in July. It is common in cultivated grounds and barnyards. 
Introduced. 

The Green Foxtail, sometimes also called Bottle Grass, 



80 



GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 




It 



1 



(setaria viridis,') 
has a spike cylindri- 
cal, more or less 
compound, green, 
bristles few in a 
cluster, longer than 
the spikelets, flower 
perfect, striate lengthwise and dotted 
is common in cultivated grounds. 

The Bengal Grass, sometimes called 
Millet, (^setaria italica,') also belongs to 
this genus. It has a compound spike, 
thick, nodding, six to nine inches long, 
yellowish or purplish, bristles two or three 
in a cluster. Introduced from Europe. 

Bur Grass, or Hedgehog Grass, (cew- 
chrus tribuloides,^ is somewhat common 
on sandy soils on the coast, or ne the 
salt water, where the spikes are whitish. 
It is regarded as a troublesome weed on 
account of its prickly burs. Flowers in 
August. 

Gama Grass, or Sesame Grass, Qrip- 
sacum dactyloides,') though ' not often 
found in this State is one of the largest 
and most remarkable grasses, thougli not 
one that would be considered of any value 
where better could be had. Its stalk is 
from four to seven eet high, and the 
leaves look not very unlike those of Indian 
corn. Grows on moist soils near the 

coast. Flowers in August. ^'^- ^* Hungarian MUlet. 

Finger-spiked Wood Grass, (andropog-on furcatus.') Of 
this genus about sixty species are known to botanists. But 
few of these are indigenous to this* country. Its generic char- 
acteristics are, a neuter or staminate lower flower, glumes and 
paleae often wanting, upper flower perfect, glumes awnless, lower 
palea awned. Flowers in panicles and spikes. 

Specific description : Stems four feet high, leaves nearly 
smooth, spikes digitate or generally by threes and fours, lower 



NATURAL HISTORY. 81 

flower awnless ; the spikelets are roiighish, downy, awn bent. 
Flowers in September. This grass is common on sterile soils, 
rocky banks and hill-sides. Not cultivated. 

PuEPLE Wood Grass, or Broom Grass, (^andropogon sco- 
parius,') and the Indian Grass, or Wood Grass, (^andropog-on 
nutans,') grow on sterile and dry, barren soils, and sandy plains, 
and are common, thongh of no value for cultivation. They 
flower from July to September. 

The Chinese Sugar Cane, (^sorghum saccharatum ? not yet 
finally classified.) Panicle open or spreading, spikelets two or 
three, the lateral ones sterile, the middle or terminal one fertile, 
glumes tough and hard, sometimes awnless, stamens three. 

Specific description : Stem from six to fifteen feet high, 
according to the soil on which it grows, erect, smooth, leaves 
linear, flexuous, gracefully curving down at the ends, resem- 
bling Indian corn in its early growth, and broomcorn, to which 
it is nearly allied, at maturity. Flowers in a panicle at the 
top, at first green, changing through the shades of violet to 
purple, when more advanced. See Fig. 85, taken from a 
plant somewhat over seven feet in height. 

This plant has lately been introduced and used both for 
lorage and the manufacture of sugar and molasses or sirup. 
In some instances it has been used for making vinegar, brandy 
and other liquors. As it is a true grass, and is at present 
exciting considerable interest throughout the country, it is 
proper to notice it in this connection. 

The genus sorghum embraces over thirty species, most of 
which originated in Asia, where some of them have been culti- 
vated time out of mind. Specimens of the sorghum sacchara- 
tum were introduced into France by means of the seed, about 
six or eight years ago, where they have been cultivated with 
considerable success. So far as we know, this species is the 
best and most valuable for cultivation for the various purposes 
alluded to. Most of the seeds first used in this country were 
obtained from France, through the efficient agency of the 
Patent Oflfice, at Washington, having been first cultivated in the 
spring of 1855. 

Any positive assertions with respect to the value of this 
plant, would, perhaps, be premature, but I have had very good 
11 



82 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

opportunities of observation upon it, and have met many indi- 
viduals from different latitudes who have cultivated it with 
great success, and numerous experiments upon it are still 
in progress, which will determine its relative value and its 
modes of cultivation. It is, undoubtedly, very rich in saccha- 
rine matter in all latitudes within the geographical range of 
Indian corn. It has been said that the percentage of sugar 
decreases somewhat in the higher latitudes ; but this does not 
seem to have been established as a fact, and the opposite con- 
clusion, will, very probably, be arrived at, even though the 
percentage of sugar found to be crystallizable should be greater 
in more tropical regions. 

The plant grown in Massachusetts the past year contained 
about twenty-three per cent, of sugar, while that grown in the 
District of Columbia contained but fourteen per cent. And 
this accords with Avhat we know of Indian corn, since it is 
pretty well established that the corn grown in high latitudes is 
richer in saccharine matter than that grown at the South. 
The meal of northern corn is also better, and will bring at all 
times a considerably higher price in the market. 

Of the Chinese sugar cane about seven-eighths of the whole 
plant consist of juice, especially when grown in a southern 
latitude where the juice is somewhat more abundant, the cane 
being more succulent there ; and we may readily credit the 
statement that vinegar has been made from this juice at the 
rate of fifteen hundred gallons to the acre. 

When cut for sugar the most favorable time is just after it 
has passed the blossom, or when the seed is " in the milk," and 
if raised for this purpose the time of planting should be later 
than that of Indian corn. The leaves are stripped off and the 
stalk is crushed in any convenient mills or rollers, though more 
suitable mills will undoubtedly be constructed. 

Should it be found on more careful trial to be equal to what 
is reported of it, it will make an entire revolution in the sugar 
growing interests of the country, and thus become a plant of 
great national importance. It is said that the crop of sugar 
raised in Louisiana has gradually decreased from nearly five 
hundred thousand hogsheads in 1853, to less than one hundred 
thousand, in 1856, while the price of sugar and molasses — a 
gi'cater amount of which is consumed in this, than in any other 




Fig. 85. Chinese Sugar Cane. 



NATURAL HISTORY. 85 

country on the globe, in proportion to the population — is loudly 
calling the attention of farmers and planters to its production ; 
and the Chinese sugar cane is regarded by some as a substi- 
tute for the species of sugar cane most commonly cultivated 
there, the saccharum officinarum. 

But I propose to speak of it in this connection mainly as a 
forage plant, though it may prove perfectly practicable and 
profitable to cultivate it for the purpose of making sugar and 
molasses. Some years ago the practice of sowing Indian corn 
in drills for the purpose of cutting up green for fodder, was 
recommended by a progressive agriculturist, and though at first 
ridiculed, it soon came to be planted in small patches of a few 
rods square, by practical farmers here and there, till now it is 
regarded as almost an indispensable crop, not only to carry a 
stock of cattle through a severe summer drought, when our 
pastures are short and dry, but to cut and cure in large quan- 
tities for winter use. The weight and value of an acre of 
fodder is very great. Of late years there has been an inclina- 
tion to use sweet corn for this purpose, under the supposition 
that it possessed a larger quantity of saccharine matter in its 
stalks and leaves than the yellow varieties. When the use of 
sweet corn was first recommended, it was said that cattle were 
so much more fond of it than of yellow corn, that they would 
select its stalks if tied up in a bundle with the stalks of yellow 
corn. The same is now asserted of the Chinese sugar cane, 
and as it comes to me very well authenticated, I see no reason 
to doubt it. 

Of the economy of the culture of corn to feed out green in 
the manner alluded to, there can be no question, and no thrifty 
and prudent farmer thinks of neglecting it ; for if we suffer 
from drought, as we are liable to every season, he is sure to 
regret it. ^ow if a substitute of superior value can be found, 
of as easy and simple cultivation, every farmer will avail him- 
self of it. Whether this substitute will be found in the Chinese 
sugar cane, remains, perhaps, to be proved ; but so great has 
been its success thus far as to lead us to anticipate its adoption 
and extensive cultivation for that purpose. In one case 
authentically reported, nearly ten tons of fodder were raised 
on an acre, cut up and cured, and weighed three months 
after cutting. This is not at all surprising when we consider 



86 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

tliat even larger yields of Indian corn have been and are fre- 
quently obtained, when raised, cut and cured in the same 
manner. 

When grown for fodder, two or three cuttings may be obtained 
from it, the first being made just before the time of blossoming, 
when the plant immediately starts up with a vigorous growth 
and renews its leaves, and sends up its flowering panicles with 
great rapidity. No less than five cuttings were obtained in 
Florida during the last year, but the seasons in more northern 
latitudes would not admit of so many. It is well known that 
Indian corn will shoot up the second time in the same manner, 
when once cut or eaten down while green. 

This plant grows best in a dry soil and hot sun, in both of 
whicli it can be -accommodated as far north as New England, 
It should be planted at or just after the time of Indian corn, 
and it will mature its fruit in about one hundred days from the 
seed. For the purposes of sugar making it is best cultivated 
on rather poor, warm soils, but for feeding out to fattening 
animals, it should be cultivated on richer ones. If raised for 
sugar it is better harvested somewhat late in the season, when 
the temperature ranges from 45° to SS'^, when it is not so apt 
to suffer from the acetous fermentation to which it will be liable 
if cut earlier. But if raised mainly for the seed, it would be 
well to plant it somewhat earlier in the spring, in which case it 
might be cut earlier in the fall. Though the seed is now 
exceedingly dear on account of its scarcity and the extensive 
demand for it, yet it is estimated that it can be raised at the 
price of oats, fifty and sixty bushels to the acre having been 
obtained without any extraordinary care. The seed can be 
made into bread or into a beverage resembling chocolate, or fed 
to poultry and other farm stock. 

The Chinese sugar cane, if sown with a view to obtaining its 
seed, or to attaining its full and perfect development, should be 
cultivated in hills after the manner of planting Indian corn, 
and hoed and cultivated in the same manner ; but if sown for 
fodder, it will be found to yield a more luxuriant crop in drills, 
as we cultivate Indian corn for tliat purpose. In the former 
case, one quart of seed will suffice for an acre as it tillers very 
much, each seed sending up several shoots or seed bearing 
stems ; in the latter case, a larger quantity would be required. 



NATURAL HISTORY. 87 

As a fodder plant it has been found nof to increase the 
quantity of milk, milch cows fed upon it having fallen off very 
decidedly, while they rapidly increased in flesh, and the quality 
and richness of the milk was found to be improved. This may, 
therefore, be found to be an objection to its use with some, to 
whom the quantity is indispensable and the quality of no con- 
sequence ; but even such may find it desirable to cure and feed 
it to cows in winter. 

It was raised in Dorchester during the past year from seed 
raised there the year previous, which is conclusive proof that 
the seed can be ripened in this latitude so as to germinate, 
though for all practical purposes it is not material to us whether 
it will ripen here readily or not, if it is found to do so in the 
Middle States. 

As already intimated, the results of experiments have been 
successful, and these experiments will be carefully repeated the 
coming season. 

A farmer in the State of New York, whose communication 
appears in the volume of the Patent Office Report on Agricul- 
ture, for 1855, says : " The proper time for planting, I should 
say, would be the same as that of early corn, as I find it quite 
hardy, and stalks of it cut down the end of October made 
fresh shoots after two rather heavy frosts, and still were good 
for feed. From twenty-five plants I obtained half a bushel of 
ripe seed. 

" The mode of cultivation I would recommend, would be to 
sow after the ground is well manured and deeply ploughed, in 
drills four feet apart, the .plants two feet asunder in the drills, 
with not more than one plant in a place, as each sends up from 
four to six shoots. When the plants are well started, say a 
foot in height, turn over the earth on each side with a plough, 
after which keep them clear of weeds with the hoe. 

" When well cultivated and in good soil, the plant attains from 
ten to fourteen feet in height and produces excellent fodder- 
from the root to the top. I believe a heavier weight of nutri- 
tious feed for all kinds of cattle can be procured from it in 
a given space of ground, than from any other plant, and I think 
it will prove of great benefit to every section of the country 
where it is introduced, not only as a green feed during the hot 
months, but after being cut up and cured like the corn plant, 



88 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

its stalks may be steamed during the winter, and given to 
horses, oxen or cows, which will commence eating at one end 
and not leave them till entirely consumed. The seeds, also, 
I have no doubt, will prove valuable as a feed for poultry, as I 
find they eat them with avidity. I look upon this plant as of 
great value as a forage crop, and possibly, it may be profitably 
cultivated for sugar, as the juice contains nearly ten per cent, 
of saccharine matter as clear as crystal, and on a very small 
scale, beautiful clarified sugar was produced by my friend Dr. 
Ray." 

Other statements are equally unqualified in the expression of 
confidence in the value of this plant. I subjoin the following 
practical suggestions on the cultivation of it, from a valuable 
little manual by Mr. Hyde, of Newton Centre, who has experi- 
mented with it. He says : — 

" Select a warm and dry soil, such as you would select for 
Indian corn. 

Prepare your ground precisely as you would for corn, either 
by spreading your manure, or putting in hills, — about the same 
distance between the hills, where the ground is rich. 

In planting, which should be done early, put into each hill 
six or eight seeds. Cover lightly with well pulverized soil, — 
say, three-fourths to one inch deep ; pull out all but four or 
five at second hoeing. If planted in drills, seed enough should 
be used so that after hoeing there may be a stalk to every four 
or five inches ; from a pound and a half to two pounds of seed 
should be used. 

Cultivate and hoe as with corn ; care should be taken that 
the ignorant do not hoe up the young plants, takijig them for 
barn-grass, which they very much resemble. 

When the panicles appear they should be cut off of all that 
swhicli is intended for sugar or sirup making. 

When the plant has just passed into bloom, the stalk may be 
»used for sirup, but will continue to grow better until the seed 
is in the milk-stage, or little later. 

The stalks should be cut close to the ground, with a bill-hook 
or some such tool, and stripped of their leaves, and the green, 
succulent top cut off, when they are ready for the mill ; the 
ileaves and top may be fed green to cattle, or dried. 



J 



NATURAL HISTORY. 89 

The stalks should be passed through the mill twice or more, 
until most or all of the juice is expressed. 

The juice should not be allowed to stand long after being 
expressed, but boiled at once, if possible. A slow fire should be 
made under the kettle, — which should be of brass, or much bet- 
ter of copper, — and the juice should not be allowed to boil until 
the green scum has all been taken off. Lime-water may be 
used to aid in clarifying and to neutralize the acid ; the exact 
quantity is not yet determined, but to every five gallons of juice, 
say from one to two teaspoonfuls of powdered lime, or the 
same dissolved in water, and strained, before being put into the 
juice. 

When all the green scum has been removed, the fire may be 
increased, and the juice boiled down until nearly as thick as 
common molasses in hot weather, when, if intended for sirup, 
it should be removed from the fire, for this completes the pro- 
cess. If intended for sugar, it should be allowed to boil longer, 
and until it will ' string into threads,' or present an appearance 
of being sufficiently boiled to grain, when it should be thrown 
off into troughs, or coolers, at once. I am not able to give 
exact information in regard to the time it should be boiled to 
crystallize readily. . Further experiments will determine. 

If made into sugar, it should be removed from the coolers to 
casks with holes bored in them, so that the molasses may drain 
off and leave the sugar dry, as it should be. These casks are 
generally placed on timbers, with a cement cistern underneath 
to hold the drippings, or molasses. After remaining in the 
' purgery ' until sufficiently drained, it comes out fit for sale, or 
use. 

If cultivated exclusively for fodder, it should be planted as 
early as the weather will allow, and quite as thick as stover- 
corn. When the panicles appear, or even before, it may be cut 
either for soiling or for drying, and the roots will at once throw 
up another crop. 

If it is desired, the juice may be fermented, like the juice of 
apples, being put into casks at the mill, and treated like cider. 

The begass, or waste, may be dried and used for fuel, or for 
making paper, or rotted (^own for manure. 

If the storms should blow down the seed-cane, no fears need 
be entertained, as it will remain weeks in that condition without 

12 



90 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

injury. I must here caution all persons who grow this cane 
against planting it in the vicinity of broomcorn, Dourah corn, 
or Guinea corn ; for it readily mixes with these plants, and it 
would render the seed worthless for planting." 

As already suggested, more accurate investigations are re- 
quired to determine the relative importance of this plant for the 
various economical purposes alluded to. If it should be found, 
on chemical analysis, that the large percentage of saccharine 
matter in the plant consists of what is called glucose, a sub- 
stance of comparatively little value, incapable of crystalliza- 
tion to any extent, instead of a saccharine substance capable of 
easy granulation, it would very materially affect the value of 
the plant for- the purposes of sugar making, but could hardly 
affect its real value as a forage plant. This point will soon be 
determined. 

If, as has been stated, it is found to be suitable for the manu- 
facture of alcoholic liquors, it should, perhaps, be regarded by 
the philanthropist as an important addition to our cultivated 
crops. It is well known that enormous quantities of our best 
grains are now withdrawn from their legitimate use as food for 
man, for the manufacture of these articles. Many distilleries 
use upwards of two thousand bushels of Indian corn or other 
grains, on an average, every day, and the consumption of grain 
for these purposes throughout the country is incredibly large. 

The Chinese sugar cane will probably be found to be an 
exhauster of land, requiring large quantities of the phosphates 
and silicates of the soil for the development of the hard coating 
of its stems. It has been estimated that nine tons of it to the 
acre would take from the soil fourteen hundred pounds of 
mineral substances. This would seem to indicate a dry, grav- 
elly, or a sandy soil, as best suited to supply it wants. 

Indian Grass, Wood Grass, (^sorghum nutans,^ is a grass 
sometimes found on our dry, sterile soils, with a panicle oblong, 
somewhat compressed, from six to ten inches long, stem from 
three to five feet high, leaves linear, grayish, sheaths smooth, 
spikelets light brown and glossy, drooping when mature, hairy 
at the base, awn twisted. It flowers in August. 

Indian Millet, (^sorghur,i vulg-are,') is a cultivated species 
and has several well marked varieties, one of which is the Broom- 



NATURAL HISTORY. 91 

CORN". It is called Guinea corn in the "West Indies, Doiirah in 
Arabia, and Nagara in the north of China. It is sometimes 
nsed as a forage plant. 

As already intimated, more than thirty species supposed to 
belong to this genus arc known to have been introduced into 
France, though it is very probable that a more accurate classifi- 
cation will distribute many of them among the other genera. 

The tall cereal which has long been cultivated in the south 
of Europe and in Barbary, under the general name of sorghum, 
resembles Indian corn in quality, and is often called small 
maize. Its stems contain a pretty large per cent, of saccharine 
matter, and it is useful to cut green as a forage plant. 

Indian millet, when raised on good soil and under favorable 
circumstances, is said to yield a larger- quantity of seed to the 
acre than any other cereal grass known, not excepting even 
Indian corn. Its nutritive quality is nearly equal to that of 
wheat. The common millet is the panicum miliacemn. 

Indian Corn, Maize, {zea mais,') is a well known plant of 
American origin, a true grass, and one of the most beautiful 
and useful of this great family. Its value as a forage plant has 
already been -alluded to in speaking of the Chinese sugar cane, 
and need not be dwelt upon here. Subject as we are, to the 
severest droughts, which parch up and essentially injure our 
pastures, this plant has been found to be of the utmost impor- 
tance to cut up green, affording an abiuidant and nutritious 
fodder, exceedingly succulent and greatly relished by cattle of 
all kinds, keeping them in good condition, while without this or 
some similar substitute our stock would inevitably suffer. 

The varieties cultivated for tlie purpose of fodder should be 
those with the largest and most succulent leaves. Some of the 
varieties of sweet corn are usually preferred, but on this point 
farther and more accurate investigations are greatly needed. 

It is estimated that on an average from six to eight tons of 
dry fodder may be procured from an acre sown in drills and 
properly cultivated, and that this would be equal to about four 
or five tons of good hay. This is a reasonable estimate, as far 
larger crops are often obtained. 

The particular advantage of raising what are called forage 
plants, either to cut up green for soiling or to cure for winter 
use, over our ordinary mowing lands is, that they give on the 



92 GEASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

same extent of land a far larger amount of nutriment for ani- 
mals. They give this product immediately, or at least, in a 
very few months from the time of sowing, while permanent 
mowing lands, or the perennial grasses, require a great length of 
time to arrive at perfection, varying from one to four or five 
years. The amount of fertilizing materials drawn from the air 
and stored away in the soil by means of the roots, and capable 
of benefiting the crops of the succeeding year is very consider- 
able, while, in the natural grasses, it remains under the turf 
and does not come into use till the sward is broken and sub- 
mitted to culture. We may choose for forage culture plants 
which start up early in spring and are capable of being used 
even before the natural grasses have attained a size to make 
them particularly valuable for grazing. 

Besides, the mass of manure which may be made from the 
product of an acre of land by the use of forage plants, owing 
to the increased yield, over and above what would be obtained 
from the same acre in the natural grasses, is an item too rarely 
taken into the account. 

Moreover the plants usually called forage plants, like the 
clovers, lucerne and green corn fodder, may have some advan- 
tage over root culture, their expense being generally less, their 
product, dried, more easily stored, and kept with less danger of 
mjury and decay, and the mode of feeding out to animals 
attended with less trouble. 

Red Clover, (trifolium pratense.') "We have given our 
whole attention, in the preceding pages, to what arc strictly and 
properly called the natural grasses. We now come to consider, 
very briefly, the artificial. Curious as it may appear, the arti- 
ficial grasses were cultivated first in point of time, in England, 
the red clover having been introduced and grown there about 
the year 1633 ; sainfoin, 1651 ; yellow clover in 1659, and 
white clover about the year 1700 ; while not one of the natural 
grasses was cultivated till nearly a century later, with the excep- 
tion of perennial rye grass, first cultivated in 1677. About the 
year 1759 the custom of sowing the chaff and seed dropped 
from the hay stack, along with the artificial grasses and rye 
grass began, and soon after — between 1761 and 1764 — tlie cul- 
tivation of Timothy and orchard grass was introduced from 
America. The culture of the bent grasses, the sheep's fescue 



NATURAL HISTORY. 93 

and the crested dog's tail, began soon after. In 1766, the 
London Society for the Encouragement of Arts offered pre- 
miums for the collection of the seeds of some of the grasses 
then found growing wild, such as the meadow foxtail, the 
meadow fescue, the sweet scented vernal grass, &c., and in 
1769 the same society offered additional rewards for farther 
investigations and experiments on the culture and comparative 
value of the natural grasses. But little was done, however, 
till the experiments undertaken by the Duke of Bedford, in 
1824. 

In this country the extensive and practical cultivation of the 
natural grasses seems to have been commenced at an earlier 
date than in England, for Jared Eliot, writing about the year 
1750, speaks of the culture of Timothy as having been adopted 
sometime previously. Indeed, the necessities of our rigorous 
climate compelled attention to this branch of husbandry soon 
after the establishment of the colony, in 1620. The climate of 
England, on the other hand, admitted a greater degree of reli- 
ance on the wild luxuriance of nature, and this mode of man- 
agement was brought over by the first settlers and attempted 
for some years, the few cattle they had being kept on poor and 
miserable swale hay, or often upon the hay obtained from the 
salt marshes. The death of their cattle from starvation and 
exposure was of very common occurrence, and not unfrequently 
the farmer lost his entire herd. The treatment of animals now, 
as they were treated during the whole of the first century of 
the colony, would make the owner liable to prosecution for 
cruelty. This treatment was, in part, owing to the poverty of 
the settlers, but more, probably, to the ideas and practices in 
which they had been early trained in a different climate. For- 
tunately for the poor dumb beast a more enlightened policy 
now governs the mass of men, and this policy has led to greater 
care and attention to the cultivation of the grasses. 

But in this country, the culture of the natural grasses takes 
the precedence in point of time from the causes already indi- 
cated, and the minds of men are so influenced by the routine 
of ordinary practice, that the introduction of clover in the early 
part of the last century met with great prejudice, which is now 
nearly, if not quite extinct. 

Red clover, though not properly included in the family of 



94 GRASSES AND FORAGE PL.VNTS. 

grasses, is now not only extensively cultivated, but is found to 
be one of the most valuable and economical forage plants. It 
belongs to the pulse family, or legiiminoscc, which includes the 
larger portion of forage plants called artificial grasses, in dis- 
tinction from the gramineoB, the true, and often called the 
natural grasses. The generic name, trefoil, or trifolium, is 
derived from the Latin ires, three, and folium, a leaf ; and the 
genus can generally be very readily distinguished by the num- 
ber and arrangement of its leaves in three leaflets, and flowers 
in dense, oblong or globular heads. 

Specific description : Stems ascending, somewhat hairy, leaf- 
lets oval or obovate, often notched at the end and marked on 
the upper side with a pale spot, heads ovate and set directly 
upon the stalk instead of upon branches. This species is 
regarded as by far the most important of the whole genus. It 
has sported into a number of varieties, one of which is biennial, 
another perennial, the latter by long cultivation becoming 
biennial, while the former, — as is true of most biennial and 
many annual plants, — assumes, to some extent, the character of 
a perennial and can be made to last tliree or four years or even 
more, by simply preventing it from running to seed. This 
plant is seen in Fig. 86, its leaf is shown in Fig. 87, and its 
fruit magnified in Fig. 88. 

The introduction of clover into England, it is often said, 
produced an entire revolution in her agriculture, and indeed, 
when we consider how important a part it plays in our own 
system of farming, we can with difficulty imagine how our 
ancestors ever got on at all in farming without it. Re this as it 
may, it is certain that it led to many of the most important 
improvements in the rotation of crops. Clover is very properly 
regarded as a fertilizer of the soil. The action of its long and 
powerful tap roots is not only mechanical, — loosening the soil and 
admitting the air, — but also chemical, serving to fix the gases 
important to enrich the earth, and when these roots decay they 
add largely to that black mass of matter we call the soil. It 
serves, also, by its luxuriant foliage, to destroy annual weeds 
which would spring up on newly seeded land, especially after 
imperfect cultivation. Rut one of the most valuable uses of 
it, and one too often overlooked, is to shade the surface and 
thereby increase its fertility. 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



95 






rig. 86. Bed Clover. 



Fig. 87. 



Clover is emphatically a lime plant, and the soils best adapted 
to it are tenacious or-stiff loams. The careful analysis of Prof. 
Way found no less than 35.39 per cent, of lime in the inorganic 
constituents of red clover, and that of Boussingault 32.80 per 
cent., while intelligent practice has arrived so nearly at the 
same conclusion, that the term " clover soils " is now almost 
universally used to indicate a tenacious loam, containing more 
or less of lime in its composition. 

Another great advantage in favor of the cultivation of clover, 
consists in its rapid growth. But a few months elapse from the 
sowing of the seed before it yields, ordinarily, an abundant and 
nutritious crop, relished by cattle of all kinds. 

Clover seed should always be sown in the spring of the year, 
in the climate of New England. It is often sown upon the late 
snows of March or April and soon finds its way down to the soil, 
where, aided by the moisture of early spring it quickly germi- 
nates and rapidly shoots up its leaf stalks. 

An accurate and valuable analysis of this plant, both in its 
green and dry state, will be found in a tabular form on a sub- 
sequent page, while a more extended notice of its culture and 



96 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

the mode of curing it, with the results of practical experience 
as to its value, will also be given in their proper place. 

White Clover, Dutch Clover, Honeysuckle, (irifolimn 
repens,') is equally common with the red, and often forms a very 
considerable portion of the sward or turf of pastures and fields 
of a tenacious and moist soil. Specific description : Stems 
spreading, slender and creeping, leaves inversely heart-shaped, 
flower heads small, white, pods four seeded, root perennial. 
Flowers from May to September. Fig. 89. A magnified flower 
is seen Fig. 90. 

White clover is widely diffused over this country and all the 
countries of Europe. It is indigenous probably both to England 
and America. When first cultivated from seed collected from 
wild plants, at the beginning of the last century, it was recorded 
of a farmer that he had " sowed the wild white clover v^diich 
holds the ground and decays not." Its chief value is as a pas- 
ture grass, and it is as valual^le for that purpose as the red 
clover is for hay or for soiling, though there arc some who place 
a low estimate upon it. It easily accommodates itself to a 
gi'eat variety of soils, but grows most luxuriantly in moist 
grounds and moist or wet seasons. Indeed, it depends so much 
upon a general distribution of rains through the season, that 
when they are sufficiently abundant it comes in profusely even 
where it was not observed in other years, and hence such sea- 
sons pass under the term of " clover years." It is not appar- 
ently so much relished by stock as from its sweetness we should 
be led to expect, but it is, on the whole, to be cherished for 
permanent pastures, and improved, as it undoubtedly may be, 
by a proper selection and culture of varieties. For an accurate 
analysis of this plant the reader is referred to a subsequent 
page. 

Lucerne, Alfalfa, (medica^o sativa, Fig. 91.) This genus 
of leguminous plants has been known and cultivated from time 
immemorial. This particular species, lucerne, was brought 
from Media to Greece in the time of Darius, about five hundred 
years l)efore Christ, and its cultivation afterwards extended 
among the Romans, and through them to the south of France, 
where it has ever since continued to be a favorite forage plant. 
It does not endure a climate as severe as red clover, requiring 
greater heat and sunlight ; but in a latitude equally suited to 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



97 



both plants it would be somewhat difficult to say which should 
have the preference. In some respects it is decidedly superior, 
as in being perennial, and consequently remaining long in the 
soil. I have seen fine specimens of it in South Boston, where 
the seed was sown in 1824, still maintaining its vigorous hold 







White Clover. 



Fig. 90. 



of the soil and growing with remarkable lusuriance. The 
crop of lucerne is as abundant as red clover, and is equally 
well relished by cattle, both green and dry. Its yield of green 
fodder continues later in the season than that of red clover. 

Lucerne sends down its tap 
roots in mellow soils, to enor- 
mous depths, having been found 
in sandy soils thirteen feet in 
length. The leaflets are in 
threes, obovate, oblong, toothed, 
the flowers pale blue, violet, or 
purple, shaped as in Fig. 92, the 
fruit in downy pods, having two 
or three twirls, as in Fig. 93. 

Lucerne is cultivated in Chili 
and grows wild in the utmost 
luxuriance in the pampas of 
Buenos Ayres, where it is called 
rig. 92. alfalfa, which is simply the com- 
mon lucerne, slightly modified 
by climate, and may be regarded 
as a variety. 

The cultivation of lucerne is 

Lucerne. 

somewhat more difficult than 

13 




98 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

that of clover for the first year, requiring a soil thoroughly 
mellowed and prepared by clean and careful tillage ; and the 
want of proper attention to this point has led to partial fail- 
ures in the attempts to raise it in this country. It suffers and 
languishes in compact clay soils, and does not flourish in light 
soils lying over an impermeable subsoil, wliich prevents the water 
from running off. It will never succeed well on thin soils. 
But in a permeable subsoil, consisting of loam, or sand or 
gravel, its roots can penetrate to great depths, and being nearly 
destitute of lateral shoots, provided with numerous fibrous 
rootlets, or radical off-shoots, imbibe their moisture and nutri- 
ment in layers of soil far below the average of other plants. In 
this respect it differs materially from clover. For lucerne, a 
suitable subsoil is of the utmost consequence. For the short 
lived red clover, a suitable surface soil is more important ; a 
want of care and deep tillage, especially a neglect to break 
through and loosen up the hard-pan wherever it exists, will 
inevitably lead to failure with lucerne. But when the soil is 
suitable, it will produce good and very profitable crops for from 
five to ten or twelve years, and, of course, it does not belong in 
the system of short rotations. 

But notwithstanding the large quantity of succulent and 
nutritious forage it produces, its effect is to ameliorate and 
improve the soil rather than to exhaust it. This apparent 
anomaly is explained by the fact that all leguminous, broad 
leaved plants derive a large proportion of their nutritive mate- 
rials from the atmosphere, and that a vast quantity of roots are 
left to decay in the soil when it is at last broken up, varying, of 
course, with the length of time the plant continues in the soil, 
while the luxuriant foliage serves to shade the soil and thus to 
increase its fertility. Much of this rich foliage is scattered and 
left to decay, as is the case with all similar plants at the time of 
harvesting, and the growth of the aftermath is also usually very 
considerable. The fact that it actually increases the fertility of 
the soil for other plants, has often been proved and may be 
regarded as fully established. A soil which would bear onlv a 
medium crop of wheat at first, produced a greatly increased 
quantity after being laid down to lucerne a few years till its 
roots had enriched the soil. 

Lucerne should not follow immediately after having been 



NATURAL HISTORY. 99 

grown a few years on the same soil, and then broken up, but 
after the land on which it lias been grown has been cultivated 
with some other crop or laid down to the natural grasses a 
length of time equal to that during which it had previously 
remained in lucerne, it can safely be sown again with it. 

The seed of lucerne, when fresh and good, is yellow, glossy 
and heavy. If the seeds are white, it is an indication that they 
are not ripe. If they are brown, we may infer that they have 
been subjected to too strong a heat to separate them from their 
husks. In either of these cases, it is not safe to purchase or 
to rely upon them. The same may be said of clover, and it is 
desirable to try them by a simple method which will be indi- 
cated hereafter in speaking of the selection of seed. As the 
seeds of lucerne are somewhat larger than clover seed and the 
plant tillers less, it is necessary to sow a larger quantity per 
acre. It may be sown in the spring along with grain crops, as 
clover often is, and not a very large crop should be expected 
the first year. 

Lucerne should be cut as soon as it begins to flower, or even 
earlier. If cut much earlier it is apt to be too watery and 
less nutritious and cures with greater difficulty ; if later, it 
becomes coarse and hard with woody fibre, and is less relished 
by cattle. It may be cut and fed green and is an exceedingly, 
valuable plant for soiling cattle, or it may be cut and cured and 
used like clover hay ; but in either case, it must be cut before 
blossoming. 

It is thought by many, that lucerne will not endure the 
climate of New England, but I do not think it satisfactorily 
proved, and I have been somewhat minute in speaking of it, 
in the hope of inducing more careful experiments on a scale 
and under circumstances sufficient to determine its relative 
value for us. I am the more anxious on this point from the 
fact that I am convinced, after much study and observation of 
our climate, that we should direct our labors in farming more 
with reference to the frequent droughts of summer to which 
we are liable every year, and from which there is no immediate 
and practicable escape except in thorough drainage and deep 
tillage, which most farmers are unwilling to undertake at pres- 
ent. " When properly managed, the number of cattle which 
can be kept in good condition on an acre of kicerne, during 



100 



GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 



the whole season, exceeds belief. It is no sooner mown than it 
pushes out fresh shoots ; and wonderful as the growth of clover 
sometimes is, in a field that has been lately mown, that of 
lucerne is far more rapid. Lucerne will last for many years, 
shooting its roots — tough and fibrous almost as those of liquorice 
— downwards for nourishment, till they are altogether out of 
the reach of drought. In the dryest and most sultry weather, 
when every blade of grass droops for want of moisture, lucerne 
holds up its stem, fresh and green, as in the genial spring." 

I am convinced, also, that the failures of attempts to culti- 
vate lucerne with us may be ascribed, in nearly every instance, 
to an improper selection of soils, and am inclined to think that 
a more accurate knowledge of the plant and a more careful 
observation of its habits of growth would lead to its more gen- 
eral adoption as an economical forage plant. 

I have procured fine specimens of lucerne in various parts of 
this State, where it is very successfully cultivated, but on too lim- 
ited a scale to determine its comparative value as a farm crop. 

Sainfoin, (Jiedysarum ono- 
brychis,') differs from lucerne 
in many important particu- 
lars. It is a leguminous 
plant with many stems from 
two to three feet long, strag- 
gling, tapering, smooth, leaves 
in- pairs of pointed, oblong 
leaflets, slightly hairy on the 
under side, flower stalks high- 
er than the leaves, ending in 
a spike of crimson or varie- 
gated flowers, succeeded by 
flat, hard pods, toothed on 
the edges and prickly on the 
sides, root perennial, and hard 
and woody. Flowers in July. 
Fig. 94. The flower is 
shown in Fig. 95, and the 
fruit in Fig. 96. 

Experiments have been made in introducing and cultivating 
it in this State, but without success. It requires a calcareous soil. 




Fig 95. 



Fig. 94. Sainfoin. 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



101 



In the south of France, where it flourishes best, it is considered 
an indispensable forage plant, improving the quality and in- 
creasing the quantity of milk when fed to milch cows, to which 
it may be given without producing the " hoove," to which they 
are subjected when allowed to feed freely on green clover and 
lucerne. Its stalks do not become ligneous if allowed to stand 
till blossoming, as those of lucerne do. The amount of fodder 
obtained from it is less than that from clover or lucerne, but its 
quality, where it can be successfully grown, is better. Its fruit 
or seed is said to be far more nutritious than oats. They are 
eagerly sought by fowls, and cause them to lay. 

Sainfoin, when green and young, will not endure a severe 
winter, but after the second or third year will endure a con- 
siderable degree of cold. It will succeed in very dry soils, 
sands and gravels. It is grown with great success in some of 
the southern counties of England. Its seeds have been gen- 
erally distributed over the country through the agency of the 
Patent Office, but, so far as I know, they have been followed by 
no marked success in the way of crops in New England. 

The arrow grasses form a limited family consisting of only 
three species found in New England. They are arranged in 
the following table : — 

Table II. List of Arrow Grasses. ( Juncaginecz. ) 



Commou Name. 


Systematic Name. 


Time of 
Flowering. 


Place of growth. 


Marsh Arrow Grass. 
Sea-«ide Arrow Grass, . 
Tall Arrow Grass, . 


Triglocliin palustre, 
Triglochin maritimum, 
Triglochin elatum. 


August, 
July, Aug. . 
June, July, . 


Marshes, both salt and 

fresh. 
Salt marshes. 

Swamps in Bridgewater 





The second of these, the sea arrow grass, is common in our 
salt marshes, having rush-like leaves of a sweetish taste, relished 
by cattle, and forming a very good fodder when well cured. 



Many of the rushes or grass-like plants so common along the 
borders of ou.r ponds, and called grasses in popular language, 
are readily eaten in the spring while green and full of juice. 
They are arranged in the following table : — 



102 



GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 



Table III. List of Grass-like Rushes. (JuncacecB.) 



Common Name. 


Systematic Name. 


Time of 
Flowering. 


Place of growth. 


Common Wood Hush, . 


Luzula campestris, 


April, May, . 


Fields and dry woods. 


Broad-leaved Hairy Wood 
Rush, .... 


Luzula pilosa. 


May, . 


Open woods, river banks 


Small-flowered Wood Rush, . 


Luzula parviflora. 


July, . 


Mountains, West. Mass. 


Soft Rush, . . . . 


Juncus effusus, . 


June, . 


Swampy grounds : com- 


Slender Rush, 


Juncus filiformis. 


July, . 


Wet banks and shores. 


Baltic Rush, . 


Juncus balticus, . 


July, . 


Sandy shores. 


Smaller Round-headed Rush, 
Many-headed Rush, 


Juncus nodosus, . 
Juncus polycephalus, . 


July, . . 
July, . 


Borders of rivers and 

ponds. 
Wet places. 


Sharp-fruited Rush, 


Juncus acuminatus, . 


August, 


Boggy swamps. 


Brownish-fruited Bush, 


Juncus articulatus, 


- 


Wet places. 


Conrad's Rush, 

Toad Rush, . . . . 


Juncus Conradi, . 
Juncus bufonius, 


July, Aug. . 
June, Aug. . 


Borders of ponds in 

sandy soil. 
Low grounds, roadsides 


Slender Rush, 


Juncus tenuis, 


June, Aug. . 


Low grounds, fields. 


Greene's Bush, 


Juncvis Greenei, . 


July, . 


Sandy borders of salt 
marshes. 


Black Grass, .... 


Juncus bulbosus, 


August, 


Borders of salt marshes 


Grass-leaved Rush, 


Juncus marginatus, . 


July, . 


Moist, sandy swamps. 


Long-fruited Rush, 


Junous Stygius, . 


- 


Peat swamps. 


Three-leaved Rush, 


Juncus trifidus, . 


July, . 


Mountain summits. 



The most prominent and valuable of these plants is the 

Black Grass, (^juncus bulbosus, var. gerardi,^ an inhabitant 
of salt marshes. This plant has a simple, slender stem, some- 
what flattened, from one to two feet high. It is considered the 
best product of the salt marshes and grows most luxuriantly, 
along their borders which are only occasionally overflowed by 
the tides, often working its way to the uplands where the seed 
is scattered, in large quantities, in curing. It should be cut 
early, and when well cured is thought to be nearly equal in 
value to good English hay. Though not of itself equal in 
value, weight for weight, to " goose grass," (;>oa niaritima, p. 
49, Fig. 30,) yet the product per acre is so much larger as to 
make it a more desirable crop. 

Most of the salt marsh plants have already been described in 
the natural history of tlie true grasses. 

The " Goose Grass," one of the most valuable of them, was 
mentioned under its synonym, Sea Spear Grass, Fig. 30, p. 49, 



NATURAL HISTORY. 103 

the name " goose grass," by which it is more generally known 
along the shores of Essex county and Cape Cod, having been 
inadvertently omitted. It is generally considered one of the 
best products of the salt marsh when it grows in mixture 
with other species of plants, as the black grass, for instance, 
and deserves a more extended notice. 

It is very well known that large tracts of salt marsh are 
nearly barren. Sometimes close cutting in the early morning, 
while the dew is on the grass and when it cuts comparatively 
easy, kills it out, and from that cause the marsh becomes bar- 
ren. More often, however, excess of water, either upon the 
surface or in the soil, from the proximity of ponds which have 
no outlet, causes barrenness. On all such tracts goose grass 
springs up and dots the whole surface with circular patches of 
green, which in shape are very like ringworms on the human 
skin. This grass is seldom found alone except on these barren 
tracts, and upon them it grows so short and thin as seldom to be 
worth cutting. One will therefore never see any goose grass 
hay except mixed with other kinds, and' generally with black 
grass. When these tracts begin to improve, either from draining 
or from any other cause, other grasses make their appearance, 
and the goose grass grows mupli more vigorous and becomes 
valuable. This will continue to be the case for several years, 
until the roots of the other grasses have taken entire possession 
of the soil, when the goose grass disappears almost entirely and 
bides its time, ready to appear again whenever from any cause 
its intrusive competitors cease to exist. 

The hay made from the mixture of goose and other grasses 
— among which black grass generally predominates — is a most 
valuable fodder. The goose grass is so weighty that it takes 
but a small quantity, comparatively, for a ton, and cattle eat it 
with almost as much avidity as oats or any other grain. In 
fact, no hay is more valuable than black grass with a large 
admixture of goose grass, when properly cured. 

The curing process requires care and time, for goose grass 
is as full of sap as possible, and requires a much longer expos- 
ure than black grass, while a very little wet when it is partially 
cured, materially injures the black grass. 

We may judge of the properties of goose grass from the 



104 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

fact, that in several instances within my own knowledge, cattle 
have died of hoove from eating it early in the spring. 

It resembles in the shape of its leaves, and somewhat in 
its cluster-like growth, that species of garlic which used formerly 
to be grown in kitchen gardens called cives, or more properly 
chives. Its seed stalks and seeds are almost precisely like the 
seed stalks and seeds of the common plantain. 

It grows both on high and low marshes, but is very seldom 
worth cutting on those tracts where it grows by itself and 
without the admixture of other grasses. 

It is proper to state in this connection that experiments have 
been made to introduce this valuable grass into our fresh wet 
meadows, and with good success. 

Most of the superior salt marsh grasses are greatly improved 
by ditching, while the poorer and comparatively worthless plants 
found there very soon die out after this operation and give place 
to more valuable species. It may be safely asserted that, on an 
average, the value of the marsh is nearly doubled by it, while 
the vegetable, peaty matter taken from it is sufficient, if properly 
used, to pay a considerable portion of the outlay. 

There is also a small family of plants called the yellow eyed 
grasses, or the star grasses, consisting of onjy two species, the 
first of which is the Yellow Eyed Grass, (xyris bulbosa,') 
flowering in July, August and September, growing on sandy 
and peaty soils, and bogs near the coast ; and the second, the 
Common Yellow Eyed Grass, Qajris caroliniana,') flowering 
in August, on sandy swamps. These are beautiful grasses, of 
no special agricultural value. 

There is still another great family of plants which, though of 
no agricultural value in point of nutritive properties as com- 
pared with the true grasses, is, nevertheless, extensively used in 
New England for forage purposes, and consequently deserves a 
passing mention. I refer to the sedges, and plants constituting 
the coarse and innutritions herbage properly included in the 
term, carex, a largo and prominent genus of grass-like plants, 
consisting in all of about four hundred and fifty species known 
to botanists, extensively diffused over all the damp parts of the 
globe, and in popular language called grasses. A few species 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



105 



of carex grow on sandy hills and along the sea shore, but most 
inhabit marshes, wet meadows, swamps, and the low, wet banks 
of streams and ditches, and moist woods. Somewhat over a 
hundred species are found in New England. None of them are 
of any real agricultural yalue, though they constitute mainly 
what we term " meadow hay," or more properly swale hay, in 
eastern Massachusetts. They are nearly destitute of mealy and 
saccharine principles in which many of the true grasses abound, 
and are eaten by cattle only when compelled by hunger, in 
the want of better grasses. It not unfrequently happens, 
however, that there is an admixture of the higher grasses 
among the carices or sedges, such as the fowl meadow, the 
bastard fowl meadow, the white top or some of the other species 
possessing higher nutritive qualities, and then, of course, the 
hay made from the swale is proportionably improved, and may 
thus become of considerable value for winter fodder. 
The Sedges arc arranged in the following table : — 



Table TV. List of Carices or Sedges, ( Cyperacece.') 





Common Name. 


Systematic Name- 


Time of 
Flowering. 


Place of growth. 


Diandrus Sedge, . 


Cyperus diandrus, 


Aug., Sept., 


Wet grounds. 


Nuttall's Sedge, . 


Cyperus Nuttallii, . , 


August, 


Salt marshes. 


Bristle-spiked Galingale, 


Cyperus strigosus, 


July to Sept., 


Swamps and low lands. 


Gray's Galingale, . 


Cyperus Grayii, . 


August, 


Barren, sandy soils. 


Tootlied Galingale, 


Cyperus dentatus, 


August, 


Sandy swamps. 


Dwarf Odorous Galingale, . 
Schweinitz's Galingale, . 


Cyperus inflexus, . » 
Cyperus Schweinitzii, . 


July to Sept., 
August, 


Banks of rivers and 

brooks. 
Shores of lakes. 


Common Spike-rush, . 


Eleocharis palustris, . 


August, 


Swamps and low lands 


Olive-fruited Spike-rush, 


Eleoeharis olivacea, 


August, 


Wet, sandy places. 


Braked Spike-rush, 


Eleocharis rostellata, . 


- 


Marshes. 


Intermediate Spike-rush, 


Eleocharis intermedia, 


August, 


Wet places. 


Obtuse-headed Spike-rush, . 
Large-tubercled Spike-rush, 


Eleocharis obtusa, 
Eleocharis tuberculosa, 


June. July, 
August, 


Bogs, borders of mud- 
dy ponds and rivers. 
Sandy swamps. 


Hair Club-rush, . . . 


Eleocharis acicularis, . 


June, July, 


Muddy borders of ponds 


Horsetail Eush, 


Eleocharis equisetoides. 


- 


Shallow water. 


Robbins's Club-rush, . 


Eleocharis Robbinsii, . 


July, . 


Ponds and ditches. 


Slender Club-rush, 


Eleocharis tenuis. 


June, July, 


Common in wet places. 


Black-fruited Club-rush, 


Eleocharis Melanocarpa, 


- 


Wet sand. 


Dwarf Spike-rush, 


Eleocharis pygmaea, 


August, 


Salt marshes. 



14 



106 



GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 



Table IV. — Continued. 



Common Name. 


Systematic Name. 


Time of 
Flowering. 


Place of growth. 


Scaly-stalked Club-rush, 


Scirpus csespitosus. 


July, . 


Wet mountains. 


riat-leaved Club-rush, . 


Scirpus planifolius, 


June, 


Woods, and in bogs. 


Floating Club-rush, 


Scirpus subterminalis, 


August, 


Sluggish streams : rare. 


Chair-bottom Rush, 
Olney's Rush, 


Scirpus pungens, 
Scirpus Olneyi, . 


July, Aug. 
July, . 


Borders of salt marshes 

and fresh ponds. 
Salt marshes. 


Torrey's Rush, 


Scirpus Torreyi, . 


July, Aug. 


Borders of ponds. 


Bulrush, .... 
Weak-stemmed Rush, . 


Scirpus lacustris, . 
Scirpus debilis, . 


July, . 
August, 


Borders of muddy rivers 

and ponds. 
Borders of sandy rivers 

and lakes. 


Sea Bulrush, . . , 


Scirpus maritimus, 


August, 


Salt marshes and salt 


River Rush, .... 
Wood Rush, .... 


Scirpus fluviatilis, 
Scirpus sylvaticus. 


July, Aug. 
July, . 


springs. 
Borders of lakes and 

large streams. 
Wet meadows. 


Cluster-head Rush, 
Porter's Rush, 


Scirpus polyphyllus, . 
Scirpus lineatus, . 


July, . 
July, . 


Swamps, shady borders 

of ponds. 
Bogs in western Mass. 


Wool Grass, .... 


Scirpus Erjophorum, . 


July to Sept. 


Wet meadows, swamps. 


Cotton Grass, 


Eriophorum Alpinum, 


May, June, 


Peat swamps. 


Harestail, .... 


Eriophorum vaginatum. 


June, . 


Mossy swamps and high 
mountains. 


Rusty Cotton Grass, 


Eriophorum Virginicum, 


July, Aug. 


Common in swamps. 


Broad-leaved Cotton Grass, . 


Eriophorum polystachyon, . 


June, July, 


Boggy meadows. 


Narrow-leaved Cotton Grass, 


Eriophorum gracile, . 


June to Aug. 


Wet mossy swamps. 


Tall Fimbristylis, . 


Fimbristylis spadicea, . 


July to Sept. 


Salt marshes : rare. 


Tufted Funbristylis, 


Fimbristylis autumalis. 


Aug. to Oct. 


Low grounds. 


Hair-like Fimbristylis, . 


Fimbristylis capillaris. 


Aug., Sept. 


Common on sandy 
fields. 


Umbrella Grass, . 


Fuirena squarrosa, ' . 


August, 


Sandy, wet places. 


Bald Rush, .... 


Psilocarya scirpoides, . 


July, . 


Inundated swamps. 


Horned Rush, 


Ceratoscfioenus macrostachya 


- 


Borders of ponds : rare. 


Dwarf Hemicarpha, 


Hemicarpha subsquarrosa, . 


July, . 


Sandy borders of rivers 
and lakes. 


White Beak-rush, . 


Rhynchospora alba. 


July, Aug. 


Mossy swamps, com- 


Small Beak-rush, . 


Rhynchospora capillacea, . 


July, . 


Swamps and marshes. 


Brown Beak-rush, 


Rhynchospora fusca, . 


July, . 


Low wet grounds : rare. 


Tall, Slender Beak-rush, 


Rhynchospora gracilenta, . 


- 


Low grounds. 


Common Beak-rush, 


Rhynchospora glomerata, . 


July, Aug. 


Boggy grounds. 


Round-head Beak-rush, 


Rhynchospora cephalantha. 


August, 


Sandy swamps. 


Smooth Twig-rush, 


Cladium mariscoides, . 


July, . 


Borders of ponds, bog 
meadows. 

Sandy swamps and bor- 
ders of ponds. 

Sandy swamps. 


Sessile-spiked Nut-rush, 


Scleria reticularis, 


August, 


Loose-flowered Nut-rush, 


Scleria laxa. 


August, 


Three-clustered Nut-rush, or 

Whip-grass, . 


Scleria triglomerata, . 


July, . . 


Swamps and moist 
thickets. 


Few-flowered Nut-rush, 


Scleria pauciflora, 


July, . 


Swamps and hills. 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



107 



Table IV. — Continued. 



Common Name. 


Systematic Name. 


Time of 
Flowering. 


Place of growth. 


Dwarf Verticillate Nut-rush, 


Scleria verticillata, 


June, . 


Swamps. 


Slender Sedge, 


Carex exilis, 


June, July, . 


Marshes in Danvers. 


Few-flowered Sedge, 


Carex paucifiora, . 


- 


Peat swamps. 


Bristle-stalked Sedge, . 


Carex polytrichoides, . 


May, . . . 


Low grounds & woods. 


WUldenow's Sedge, 


Carex WiUdenovii, 


May, 


Moist, shady places. 


Back's Sedge, 


Carex Backii, 


- 


Mount Tom and rocky 

hills. 


Two-seeded Sedge, 


Carex disperma, . 


June, . 


Mossy swamps and 
mountains. 


Long-rooted Sedge, 


Carex cherelorhiga, 


May, . 


Mossy swamps. 


Oral-headed Sedge, 


Carex cephalophora, . 


May, . 


Hill-sides and fields 


Muhlenberg's Sedge, . 


Carex Muhlenbergii, . 


April, . 


Rocky hill-sides and 
mountains. 


Dry-spiked Sedge, . 


Carex siccata. 


- 


Sandy plains. 


Rose Sedge, .... 


Carex rosea, .... 


May, . 


Moist woods and low 


Retroflexed Sedge, 


Carex retroflexa, . 


May, 


grounds. 
Open woods and moist 
meadows. 


Bur-reed Sedge, . 


Carex sparganioides, . 


May, 


Low swampy grounds. 


Awl-fruited Sedge, 


Carex stipata, 


April, . 


Swamps, low grounds. 


Fox Sedge, .... 


Carex vulpinoidea, 


May, 


Low grounds : common 


Bristly-spiked Sedge, . 


Carex setacea. 


June, . 


Wet meadows. 


Bromus-like Sedge, 


Carex bromoides, . 


May, . 


Wet swamps. 


Foxtail Sedge, 


Carex alopecoidea. 


- 


Woods. 


Sartwell's Sedge, . 


Carex Sartwellii, . 


- 


- 


lesser-panicled Sedge, . 


Carex teretiuscula, 


June, 


Swamps : common. 


Large-panicled Sedge, . 


Carex decomposita. 


- 


Swamps. 


Three-seeded Sedge, 


Carex trisperma, . 


June, . 


Peat swamps, wet 
mountain woods. 


Dewey's Sedge, 


Carex Deweyana, . 


June, . 


Moist woods. 


White Carex, 


Carex canescens, . 


May, . 


Wet meadows. 


little Prickly Sedge, . 


Carex stellulata, . 


May, 


Wet meadows. 


Slender Cluster-spiked Sedge, 


Carex tenuiflora, . 


June, 


Mossy swamps. 

J 


Broom-like Sedge, . 


Carex scoparia. 


_ 


Wet meadows and 


Straw-colored Sedge, 


Carex straminea, . 


May, June, . 


swamps. 
Borders of woods and 

fields. 
Rocky hills and dry 

woods. 


Long-stalked Sedge, 


Carex pedunculata. 


April, . 


Square-headed Sedge, . 


Carex squarrosa, . 


May, . 


Low meadows, thickets 


Buxbaum's Sedge, 


Carex Buxbaumii, 


May, . 


Mossy swamps. 


Three-headed pubescent Sedge 


Carex triceps. 


May, . 


Woods and meadows. 


Green- spiked pubescent Sedge 


Carex virescens, . 


May, . 


Woods and hill-sides. 


Slender Nodding Sedge, 


Carex graeillima, . 


June, . 


Moist grounds. 


Showy Sedge, 


Carex formosa, 


May, 


Wet meadows. 


Davis's Sedge, 


Carex Davisii, 


May, 


Swamps, river banks. 


Rigid Sedge, .... 


Carex rigida, 


July, . 


Mountain summits. 



108 



GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 



Tabxe IV. — Continued. 



Common Name. 


Systematic Name. 


Time of 

Flowering. 


Place of growth. 


Large Bog Sedge, . 


Carex augustata, . 


May, . . 


Swamps : common. 


SmaUer Bog Sedge, 
Water Sedge, 
Golden-fruited Sedge, . 


Carex cfespitosa, . 
Carex aquatilis, . 
Carex aurea. 


May, . 
June, July, . 
May, June, . 


Swamps and banks of 

streams. 
Borders of lakes and 

rivers. 
Borders of swamps and 

DrOOKB. 


Fringed Sedge, 


Carex crinita. 


May, June, . 


Swamps, river banks. 


Few-fruited Sedge, 
Inflated Sedge, 


Carex oligosperma, 
Carex buUata, 


June, 
May, . 


Mountains, borders of 

swamps. 
Swamps: not common. 


Cylindrical-spiked Sedge, 


Carex cylindrica, . 


- 


Swamps : commen. 


Bladder-fruited Sedge, . 


Carex utriculata, . 


May, 


Wet swamps. 


Awl-fruited Sedge, 


Carex subulata, . 


May, . 


Cedar swamps. 


Tall YeUow Sedge, 


Carex folliculata, . 


June, . 


Swamps, peat bogs. 


Swollen-fruited Sedge, . 
Hop Sedge, .... 
Rough-fruited Sedge, . 


Carex intumescens, 
Carex lupulina, . 
Carex scabrata, . 


June, . 
June, . 
May, . 


Wet grounds and open 

woods. 
Swamps and borders of 

ponds. 
Borders of brooks. 


Schweitnitz's Sedge, 


Carex Schweinitzii, 


May, . 


Swamps. 


Late-fruited Sedge, 
Long-pointed Sedge, 


Carex retrorsa, 
Carex tentaculata, 


May, . 
May, 


Borders of ponds and 

streams. 
Swamps. 


Porcupine Sedge, . 


Carex hystricina, . 


June, . 


Swamps: common. 


Cyperus-like Sedge, 
Long-beaked Sedge, 


Carex Pseudo-Cyperus, 
Carex longirostris. 


June, . 
June, . 


Swamps and sluggish 

streams. 
Shady, rocky places. 


Hairy-fruited Sedge, 


Carex tricbocarpa, 


June, . 


Marshes and lakes. 


Awned Sedge, 


Carex aristata. 


- 


Lake shores. 


Umbel-spiked Sedge, 


Carex umbellata, . 


May, . 


Rocky hill-sides. 


Pennsylvanian Sedge, . 


Carex Pennsylvanica, . 


April, . 


Dry woods and hill-sides 


New England Sedge, 
Slender-leaved Sedge, . 


Carex Novse-AngliiE, . 
Carex filiformis, . 


June, . 
May, . 


Woody hills and moun- 
tains. 
Peat swamps. 


Woolly-fruited Sedge, . 
Short Woolly-spiked Sedgo, . 


Carex lanuginosa, 
Carex vestita, 


May, . 
May, . 


Swamps and borders of 

ponds. 
Moist, sandy soils. 


Pubescent Sedge, . 


Carex pubescens, . 


May, . 


Woods and swamps. 


Mud Sedge, .... 


Carex limosa, 


June, . 


Mossy swamps. 


Livid Sedge, .... 


Carex livida, 


June, . 


Mossy swamps. 


Large Yellow Carex, 


Carex flava, . . ' . 


May, . 


Swamps. 


(Eder's Sedge, 


Carex (Ederi, 


May, . 


Wet limestone rocks. 


Pale Pubescent Sedge, . 


Carex pallescens, .. 


May, . 


Swamps. 


Torrey'e Sedge, 


Carex Torreyi, 


- 


Northward. 


Striated Sedge, 


Carex striata. 


May, . . 


Swamps. 


Granular-spiked Sedge, 


Carex granulans, 


May, . 


IVct swamps : common. 


Loose-flowered Sedgo, . 


Carex laxiflora, . 


May, . 


Swamps & moist woods. 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



109 



Table IV. — Continued. 



Common Name. 


Systematic Name. 


Time of 

Flowering. 


Place of growth. 


Conical-fruited Sedge, . 


Carex conoidea, . 


May, . 


Wet swampf. 


Slender Wood Sedge, . 


Carex digitalis, 


May, . 


Woods and hill-sides. 


Hitchcock's Sedge, 


Carex Hitchcockiana, . 


May, . 


Woods, hiU-sides. 


Small Few-fruited Sedge, 


Carex oligocarpa. 


May, . 


Woods. 


Crooked-necked Sedge, . 
Two-edged Sedge, . 


Carex tetanica, 
Carex anceps, 


May, . 
May, . 


Margin of lakes and 

rivers. 
Woods. 


Pale, Smooth Sedge, 
Crawe's Sedge, 


Carex blanda, 
Carex Crawei, 


May, . 


Swamps and dry open 

woods. 
Banks of rivers. 


Plantain-leaved Sedge, . 


Carex plantaginea. 


April, May, . 


Shady, rocky ravines. 


Carey's Sedge, 


Carex Careyana, . 


May, 


Shady, dry woods. 


Bristled-leaved White Sedge, 


Carex eburnea, 


May, . 


Limestone hills. 


Fringed Sedge, 


Carex flexilis, 


June, . 


Moist, shady places. 


Short-beaked Woody Sedge, . 


Carex arctata. 


May, . 


Moist woods, swamps. 


Weak Sedge, .... 


Carex debUis, 


May, . 


Moist woods, swamps. 


MUlet-Uke Sedge, . 


Carex miUacea, . 


May, . . 


Wet swamps. 


Lake Sedge, .... 
Tuckerman's Sedge, 


Carex lucustris, . 
Carex Tuckermani, 


June, . 


Deep swamps, borders 

of lakes. 
Wet swamps. 


Washington's Sedge, 

Gray's Sedge, 

Bog Sedge, . . . . 


Carex Washingtoniana, 
Carex Qrayii, 
Carex acuta. 


July, . 


Near summit of Mount 
Washington. 

Swamps and river bor- 
ders. 

In dense bogs in swamps 


Sea Carex, .... 


Carex arenaria, . 


June, July, . 


Sandy sea shores. 



This table includes all the species of carex known and 
described as inhabitants of our low lands, and is thought to be 
very complete. As already intimated, none of these coarse 
sedges are rich in nutritive elements, and none are worthy of 
cultivation. The farmer's care should be to eradicate them 
and supply their places with the higher and more nutritious 
grasses. This may be done by thorough draining, an opera- 
tion which lies at the foundation of all successful management 
of low lands, and without which they are comparatively worth- 
less, while, if properly reclaimed, they are among the best and 
most productive lands on the farm. 

The roots of the sedges are perennial, and for the most part 
creeping, a few being tufted and fibrous. The stems are simple 
and free from joints or nodes. The leaves are linear, flat, 
pointed, roughish on the surface and sharp on the edges. 



110 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 



The grasses whose natural history has been stated in the pre- 
ceding pages, might be separated into four or five distinct 
groups, which would facilitate the study of them ; for it must 
have been observed that many of them possess marked peculiari- 
ties of growth. 

I. We find first the bush or jungle grasses, or such as are 
not inclined to grow with other species, and form a close, 
matted turf or sward. Of these we have as examples the 

Tufted Hair Grass, (^aira ccespitosa.^ 

Meadow Oat Grass, (avena pratensis.) 

Tall Fescue Grass, (^festuca elatior.^ 
A few others, if sown alone, will assume somewhat the same 
form, in tufts or cushions, as 

Sheep's Fescue, (^festuca ovina.^ 

Hard Fescue, Qfestuca duriuscula.') 

Orchard Grass, (daclylis glomerata.') 
This peculiarity in the growth of the last three grasses is 
prevented by close pasturing, rolling and proper cultivation. 
These operations improve upon nature, since if left to them- 
selves they would far more certainly assume the jungle growth, 
such as is often seen on poor, thin pasture soils, especially in 
the south-eastern parts of the State, where on the sandy soils 
this mode of growth is every where observable — a close, fine, 
matted sward being attained only by careful cultivation. 

II. The aquatic or water grasses form another distinct group, 
and among these are the 

Reed Canary Grass, Qphalaris arundinacea,') 
Common Reed Grass, (arundo plirag-mites.') 
Water Spear Grass, (^poa aquatica.') 
Common Manna Grass, (^poa fluitans.') 
Rice Grass, (^Leersia oryzoides.^ 
Floating Foxtail, (alopecurus geniculatus.^ 
Wild Rice, (zizania aquatica.^ 
These grasses grow mostly in water and are not cultivated 
with us as agricultural grasses with the exception, perhaps, of 



NATURAL HISTORY. Ill 

the first. Wild rice grass is sometimes cultivated and yields 
large crops at the South, and floating foxtail in Europe. 

III. Marsh or Salt Grasses, among which we have 
Salt Reed Grass, (^spartina polystachya.') 
Rush Salt Grass, (^spartina juncea.} 

Salt Marsh Grass, (^spartina stricta.y 
Black Grass, (^juncus hulbosus.') 
Beach Grass, (ammophila arundinacea.') 
Goose Grass, (^poa maritima.^ 

IV. Field or Pasture Grasses. Under this head may be 
included a very large number of species, all of which have 
been described above. These grasses might be subdivided 
according to the soils and situations which they naturally 
affect; for though a grass may sometimes be found or 
placed in a soil which is not naturally fitted for it, yet no 
species will arrive at its most perfect development on a soil not 
well adapted to it. 

Among these might be mentioned as examples 
Timothy, (^phleum pratense.^ 
Meadow Foxtail, (alopecurus pratensis.^ 
Common Spear Grass, (^poa pratensis.') 
Orchard Grass, (dactylis g-lomerata.') 
Perennial Rye Grass, (lolium perenne.') 
Italian Rye Grass, (lolium italicum.^ 
Redtop, (^agroslis vulgaris.^ 
Whitetop, (agrostis albaS) 
Downy Oat Grass, (avena pnbescens.') 
Meadow Soft Grass, (liolcus lanatus.^ 
Meadow Fescue, (festuca pratensis.') 
Field Barley Grass, (Jiordeum pratense.') 
Tall Oat Grass, (arrhenatherum avenaceum.) 

V. Annual Weeds, which, though proper grasses, are often 
very troublesome in cultivated grounds, either on account of 
their creeping, underground stems, or their rapid and luxuriant 
growth. Thrifty farming is a ceaseless struggle against these 
pests, and the farmer is generally careful to keep as clear as 
possible of them. Among these may be named 



112 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

WillarcL's Bromiis, (bromus secalinus.') 
Soft Brome Grass, (bromus mollis.') 
Slender Foxtail, (alopecurus agrestis.') 
Creeping Bent Grass, (agrostis stolonifera.) 
Couch, or Twitch Grass, (triticum repens.) 
Rough Stalked Meadow Grass, (poa trivialis.') 
Annual Meadow Grass, (poa annua.) 
Blue, or Wire Grass, (poa compressa.) 
Of these, the last four are not always considered as weeds, 
since they are sometimes sown as pasture grasses ; but when 
they appear in cultivated grounds, in gravel walks and avenues, 
they are exceedingly troublesome and difficult to eradicate. 

Each of the groups indicated above may be considerably 
enlarged by a study of the natural history of the grasses pre- 
sented in the foregoing pages. 

Many of the grasses which have been described, possess but 
little value for the purposes of cultivation, it is true, but it 
should not be forgotten that they all have their uses, and these 
uses in the grand economy of nature are exceedingly impor- 
tant, however they may appear to our short sighted vision. No 
plant comes up to the sunlight or expands its beautiful leaves, 
that does not derive its support in part from the atmosphere, 
and even though its life be short, it adds materially in its decay 
to the vast mass of vegetable mould which covers the surface 
of the globe and forms the richness of the soil. This surface 
mould has been accumulating for ages in many localities ; 
every plant that grew in ages past bringing down to us in a 
tangible form the riches with which the air that surrounded it 
was stored, which now lie waiting the farmers' use in meadows 
of exhaustless fertility, in swamps and bogs of vast, increasing 
utility in our agriculture, and in beds of peat, the value of 
which we have scarcely begun to appreciate. Thus, the grasses 
which are not cultivated for their direct nutritive qualities, are 
not without their value, and they deserve our careful study 
and attention. 



NUTRITIVE VALUE. 113 



NUTRITIVE VALUE OF THE GRASSES. 

We have seen that the various species of grass differ very 
materially in nutritive value ; that some contain the greatest 
quantity of nutritive matter when green or in the flower ; others 
when the seed is ripe and the plant mature ; that some yield a 
luxuriant aftermath, while others can scarcely be said to pro- 
duce any at all ; that some flourish in elevated situations and 
are best suited to the grazing of sheep, while others grow most 
luxuriantly on the low lands and in the marshes, and sustain 
the richest dairies ; and that no soil is so sterile, no plain so barren 
but that a grass can be found adapted to it. Some varieties, 
indeed, will not endure a soil even of medium fertility, nor the 
application of any stimulating manure, but cling with astonish- 
ing tenacity to the drifting sands, while others prefer the 
heaviest clays or revel in the hot beds of -ammonia ; some are 
gregarious in their habits, requiring to be sown with other 
species, and if sown alone will linger along till the wild grasses 
spring up to their support ; others are solitary, and if mixed 
with different species will either extirpate them, usurping to 
themselves the entire soil, or die and disappear. Nearly every 
species is distinguished for some peculiar quality, and most are 
deficient in some, comparatively few combining all the qualities 
desired by us in alternate field crops, for pastures or permanent 
mowing, to such an extent as to justify a general cultivation. 

It is important, therefore, to learn the comparative nutritive 
value of each species thought to be worth cultivating. 

This study is naturally attended with gi-eat difficulties. It is 
but recently that accurate researches have been made with a 
view of arriving at such positive results as would be entitled 
to full confidence.* 

It is now very well established that the nutritive value of the 
food of an animal depends chiefly upon the proportion of nitro- 
genous substances contained in it. Without doubt, the sugar 

* In 1824, a very laudable attempt was made in England by the Duke of 
Bedford, at Woburn Abbey, to ascertain the comparative value of most of the 
grasses which could then be obtained, and the results of the experiments, 
15 



114 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

which is found to be an ingredient of most vegetable substances 
at some periods of their growth, in some degree contributes to 
it also. The nitrogenous constituents of any substance, as 
grass or hay, for instance, may be determined with little diffi- 
culty and with great exactness, since it has been found by 
abundant research, that, when present, they are of nearly the 
same constitution, and do not vary in their combinations. The 
determination of the sugar is somewhat more difficult. 

The constituents of plants may be divided into two classes, 
one class embracing all those substances of which nitrogen or 
azote forms a part, and the other consisting of non-nitrogenous 
bodies. Gluten, albumen, gelatine, casein, legumen and fibrin, 
belong to the former class, being nitrogenous substances, while 
starch, gum, sugar, woody fibre, mucilage, &c., are destitute of 
nitrogen, or non-nitrogenous. 

Only a small quantity of nitrogen is found in vegetable sub- 
stances, and it is derived, in part, at least, from the atmosphere 
in the form of ammonia. On the other hand, nitrogenous sub- 
stances form a large "proportion of the constituents of the blood 
of animals and appear in their whole system. As there is a con- 
stant waste in the animal and a continual formation of new 
tissues, — as the whole body is constantly renewed through the 
agency of the blood which is converted into flesh and muscle, — 
there must be a never failing supply of nourishment, and this 
nourishment for the higher animals is found, as already inti- 
mated, in the nitrogenous elements of plants. 

conducted by liis gardener, George Sinclair, were detailed in a volume under 
the title of " Hortus Gramineiis Woburne7isis." This work, which was the 
first treatise worthy of mention on this subject, became the text-book on the 
grasses, and has been followed by most subsequent writers, down to the present 
time. But these experiments must be regarded as very unsatisfactory, both 
on account of the imperfections of the methods of arriving at the results, 
(though they were the best then known, and suggested by Sir Humphrey 
Davy,) and because each species or variety was cultivated only to a very limited 
extent. The produce per acre, for instance, was calculated, in most cases, 
from the yield of four square feet. Besides this, very great discrepancies 
occur in the volume which can with difficulty bo accounted for. 

The analyses recently made by Prof Way, the distinguished chemist of the 
Royal Agricultural Society, are more reliable, in my estimation, than any 
which can be found, and no treatise on the grasses would be complete without 
giving the valuable results to which he has arrived. 



NUTRITIVE VALUE. 115 

For every ounce of nitrogen which the animal requires to 
sustain life and health, he must take into the stomach, in the 
shape of food, such a quantity of vegetable substances as will 
furnish him with an ounce of nitrogen. If we suppose one 
kind of hay to contain one ounce of nitrogen to the pound, and 
another to have only half as much, or only an ounce in two 
pounds, the pound which contains the ounce of nitrogen would 
go as far to nourish the animal — other things being equal — 
as the two pounds which contain only the same quantity of 
nitrogen. The importance of woody fibre to act mechanically 
in giving bulk to the food, is not, of course, to be overlooked. 

Nor is this a mere deduction of theory. The experiment has 
frequently been made, and it is now fully established both by 
science and experience, that the greater the proportion of nitro- 
gen which any vegetable contains, the smaller will be the quan- 
tity of that vegetable required to nourish the animal body, and 
the less nitrogen any vegetable contains, the greater will be the 
quantity of it required. Muscle and flesh are composed of 
nitrogenous principles, while fat is made up of non-nitrogenous 
matter. Every keeper of stock knows that to feed an animal 
on oil cake alone, for instance, which is but slightly nitroge- 
nous, might fatten him, but it would not give him strength of 
muscle or size ; while if the same animal be kept on the cereal 
grains, as wheat or Indian. corn, alone, his size rapidly increases, 
his muscular system develops, and he gains flesh without 
increasing his fat in proportion. It was with reference to these 
facts that Boussingault formed his tables of nutritive equiva- 
lents, and they agree very tlosely with the results of practical 
observation. 

The non-nitrogenous substances are necessary for the pro- 
duction of fat and to supply the animal body with heat, and 
thus they meet a want in the animal economy, although they 
do not contribute so directly to nourish and sustain the system. 
They are, therefore, important in the analyses of articles of 
food, though not so essential in determining merely their nutri- 
tive values. 

From what has been said, the reader will very readily 
understand the following tables containing the results of the 
investigations of Prof. Way. The specimens of the various 
grasses on which his researches were made, were analyzed both 



116 



GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 



in their green state as taken from the field, and after being 
dried at a temperature of 212° Fahr., a point at which the 
moisture is fonndto be entirely expelled and evaporation ceases, 
and the importance of both determinations mnst be obvious on 
a moment's reflection. 

The names of the natural grasses and the dates of their 
collection are arranged in the following table : — 

Table V. Natural Grasses. Name, and Date of Collection. 



Common Name. 



Sweet-scented Vernal Grass, . 

Meadow Foxtail Grass, 

Tall Oat Grass, .... 

Yellow Oat Grass, 

Downy Oat Grass, 

Common Quaking Grass, . 

Upright Brome Grass, 

Soft Brome Grass, 

Crested Dog's-tail Grass, . 

Orchard Grass, .... 

Orchard Grass, seeds ripe, 

Hard Fescue Grass, . 

Meadow Soft Grass, . • . 

Barley Grass, .... 

Perennial Rye Grass, 

Italian Rye Grass, . 

Timothy, 

Annual Spear Grass, 

June Grass, .... 

Kough-stalked Meadow Grass, . 

Grass from a watered or irrigated 
meadow, . . . . 

Grass from a watered or irrigated 
meadow, . . . . 

Annual Rye Grass, . 



Botanic Name. 



Anthoxanthum odoratum, 
Alopecurus pratensis, 
Arrhenatherum avenaceum, 
Avena flavescens, 
Trisetum pubescens, 
Briza media, . 
Bromus erectus, 
Bromus mollis, 
Cynosurus cristatus, 
Dactylis glomerata, 
Dactylis glomerata, 
Festuca duriuscula, 
Holcus lanatus, 
Hordeum pratense, 
Lolium perenne, 
Lolium italicum, 
Phleum pratense, 
Poa annua, 
Poa pratensis, . 
Poa triyialis, . 

First Crop, 

Second Crop, . 



Date of 
collection. 



May 25, 
June 1, 
July 17, 
June 29, 
July 11, 
June 29, 
June 23, 
May 8, 
June 21, 
June 13, 
July 19, 
June 13, 
June 29, 
July 11, 
June 8, 
June 13, 
June 13, 
May 28, 
June 11, 
June 18, 

April 30, 

June 26, 
June 8, 



Character of the Soil. 



Calcareous loam. 

Calcareous loam, gray- 

elly subsoil. 
Forest marble loam. 

Forest marble loam. 

Dry calcareous loam. 

Forest marble. 

Calcareous loam. 

Stiff loam. 

Calcareous loam. 

Calcareous loam on 

gravel. 
Calcareous loam. 

Dry calcareous loam. 

Calcareous loam. 

Calcareous loam on 

gravel. 
Calcareous rubbly loam 

Forest marble loam. 

Forest marble loam. 

Loam, with gravelly 

subsoil. 
Dry calcareous loam. 

Calcareous loam. 

Calcareous loam. 

Calcareous loam. 
Calcareous rubbly loam 



In the same manner, the name and date of collection of 
each specimen of artificial grass, analyzed, are arranged in 
table VI. 



NUTRITIVE VALUE. 117 

Table VI. Artificial Grasses. Name, and Date of Collection. 



Common Name. 


Botanic Name. 


Date of 
collection. 


Character of Soil. 


Bed CloTer, .... 


Trifolium pratense, 


June 7, 


Tenacious loam. 


Perennial Clover, . 


Trifolium perenno. 


June 4, 


Calcareous loam. 


Crimson Clover, . 


Trifolium incarnatum. 


June 4, 


Calcareous loam . 


Cow Grass, 


Tiifolium medium, 


June 7, 


Tenacious loam. 


Cow Grass, 2a lot. 


Trifolium medium. 


June 21, 


Calcareous loam. 


Hop trefoil, .... 


Trifolium procumbens, 


June 13, 


Calcareous loam. 


White Clover, 


Trifolium repens. 


June 18, 


Forest loam. 


Common vetch. 


Vicia sativa, 


June 13, 


Forest loam. 


Sainfoin, .... 


Onobrychis sativa, 


June 8, 


Dry loam. 


Lucerne, or Alfalfa, 


Medicago sativa, . 


June 16, 


- 


Black Medick, or Nonsuch, . 


Medicago lupulina, 


June 6, 


Calcareous loam. 



The inquiries of Prof. Way Avere directed to ascertain 

1. Tlic proportion of water in each grass as taken from the 
field. 

2. The proportion of albuminous or flesh-forming substances, 
including, without distinction, all the nitrogenous principles. 

3. The proportion of oily or fatty matters which may be 
called fat-forming' principles. 

4. The proportion of elements of respiration, or heat pro- 
ducing principles, among which are included starch, gum, 
sugar, pectic acid, &c. ; all the non-nitrogenous substances 
indeed, except fatty matters and woody fibre. 

5. The proportion of woody fibre. 

6. The amount of mineral matter or ash. 

The specimens were picked out, plant by plant, each specimen 
by itself, from fields in which they were growing naturally, or 
mixed in the ordinary mode of cultivation, and were not raised 
expressly for analysis. 

These tables of analyses, containing as they do the results of 
profound investigation, and forming as they do one of the most 
important contributions recently made to the science of agri- 
culture, are worthy of careful study and will be found to be 
full of the most valuable practical suggestions. 

The results of the analysis of the natural grasses in the green 
state, are arranged in table VII. as follows : — 



118 



GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 



Table VII. Analysis of Natural Grasses. (100 parts as taken green 
from the field.) 



Name of Grass. 


1 


.s 
K a M 

a ^H ty 


1 

03 


Heat -producing 
principle s — 
starch, gum, 
sugar, etc. 


£ 

>> 

o 


u 

B 
a 

II 

a u 
go 


Sweet-scented Vernal, 










80.35 


2.05 


■ .67 


8.54 


7.15 


1.24 


Meadow Foxtail, 










80.20 


2.44 


.52 


8.59 


6.70 


1.55 


TaU Oat Grass, . 










72.65 


3.54 


.87 


11.21 


9.37 


2.36 


Yellow Oat Grass, 










60.40 


2.93 


1.04 


18.66 


14.22 


2.72 


Downy Oat Grass, 










61.50 


3.07 


.92 


19.16 


13.34 


2.01 


Quaking Grass, . 










51.85 


2.93 


1.45 


22.60 


17.00 


4.17 


Upright Brome Grass, 










59.57 


3.78 


1.35 


3319 


2.11 


Soft Brome Grass, 










76.62 


4.05 


.47 


9.04 


8.46 


1.36 


Crested Dog's-tail, 










62.73 


4.13 


1.32 


19.64 


9.80 


2.33 


Orchard Grass, . 










70.00 


4.06 


.94 


13.30 


10.11 


1.59 


Orchard Grass, seeds ripe. 










52.57 


10.93 


.74 


12.61 


20.54 


2.61 


Hard Fescue Grass, 










69.33 


3.70 


1.02 


12.46 


11.83 


1.66 


Meadow Soft Grass, . 










69.70 


3.49 


1.02 


11.92 


11.94 


1.93 


Barley Grass, 










58.85 


4.59 


.94 


20.05 


13.03 


2.54 


Perennial Rye Grass, . 










71.43 


3 37 


.91 


12.08 


10.06 


2.15 


ItaUan Rye Grass, 










75.61 


2.45 


.80 


14.11 


4.82 


2.21 


Timothy Grass, . 










57.21 


4.86 


1.50 


22.85 


11.32 


2.26 


Annual Spear Grass, . 










79.14 


2.47 


.71 


10.79 


6.30 


.59 


June Grass, 










67.14 


3.41 


.86 


14.15 


12.49 


1.95 


Rough-stalked Meadow Grass, 








73.60 


2.58 


.97 


10.54 


10.11 


2.20 


Grass from Irrigated Meadow, 








87.58 


3.22 


.81 


3.93 


3.13 


1.28 


Grass from Irrigated Meadow, 2d crop. 




74.53 


2.78 


.52 


11.17 


8.76 


2.24 


Annual Rye Grass, .... 




69.00 


2.96 


.69 


12.89 


12.47 


1.99 



A glance at the first column of table VII. will show a striking 
difference in the percentage of water, it being as high as 80 in 
some instances, while it falls as low as 60, and in one instance 
to 51, without considering the second specimen of orchard 
grass — in which the seed was allowed to ripen, when, of course, 
the amount of water would be much less than at the period of 
flowering — or the irrigated grasses. 

It will be noticed that those grasses which come earliest into 
flower are generally the most succulent, though this is not uni- 
formly the case. 



NUTRITIVE VALUE. 119 

It will be seen that the sweet-scented vernal grass and the 
meadow foxtail contain but 20 parts in 100, of dry, solid mat- 
ter, while the yellow oat and the downy oat grasses contain 
nearly double, or about 40 per cent. This difference^ though 
of no great importance in itself, is of some interest in showing 
that to judge of the quantity of hay a given burden of grass 
will produce, it is necessary to consider the species of grass 
which mainly composes the meadow, since it is evident that a 
given weight of one variety might make double the quantity of 
the same weight of another. 

But the chief interest of the table is to be found in columns 
three, four and five. The albuminous or flesh forming princi- 
ples will be found to be double in some instances what they are 
in others ; and in accordance with the principles laid down in 
the explanatory remarks which precede the tables, some would 
appear to be more than twice as nutritive as others, but it should 
be borne in mind that these differences depend in part on the 
variations in the quantity of water, and that the real differences 
will appear more apparent in the dried specimens. 

A glance at table VIII. will show that the percentage of 
water in the artificial grasses as taken from the field, is greater 
than that of the natural grasses under the same circumstances. 
The percentage of albuminous or flesh forming principles is 
generally, though by no means uniformly, less than that of our 
best grasses. Compare red clover, for instance, with Timothy, 
and the first striking peculiarity is the difference in the amount 
of water, in the one case exceeding 81 per cent., leaving but 
19 per cent, of solid matter from which the flesh forming and 
other nutritive substances must be drawn, while in Timothy 
the water amounts to only little over 57 per cent., leaving 43 
per cent, of solid substances containing nutritive principles. 
This is an important difference to begin with. The percentage 
of flesh forming principles of the two plants does not, at first 
sight, appear to differ very materially, the clover containing 
4.27 the Timothy 4.86 ; but a little consideration of the exceed- 
ing value of this constituent, will show that the latter has an 
important advantage in this respect over the clover. In fat- 
forming principles, the Timothy is more than twice as rich as 
clover, while in heat-producing principles — also very valuable — 
Timothy far surpasses clover, the one producing 22.85 percent., 



120 



GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 



and the other only 8.45 per cent. Of waste and useless matter 
in the sliape of woody fibre, Timothy contains the largest per 
cent., while the larger quantity of mineral matter shows it also 
to be a greater exhauster of the soil. The most valuable i>rac- 
tical deductions of a similar nature may be made by comparing 
these tables. 



Table VIII. Analysis of Ariificial Grasses, 
taken from the field). 



(100 parts, as 



Name of Plant. 


1 


ifl 

sis 

3 a; S 
.Ota p, 

< 


a 

1 


Ileat -producing 
principle s — 
starch, gum, 
sugar, etc. 


-a 


Mineral matter, 
or ash. 


Red Clover, 










81.01 


4.27 


.09 


8.45 


3.76 


1.82 


Perennial Clover, 










81.05 


3.64 


.78 


8.04 


4.91 


1.58. 


Crimson Clover, . 










82.14 


2.96 


.07 


6.70 


5.78 


1.75 


Cow Grass, . 










74.10 


6.30 


.92 


9.42 


6.25 


3.01 


Cow Grass, 2d specimen, 










77.57 


4.22 


1.07 


11.14 


4.23 


1.77 


Hop Trefoil, 










83.48 


3.39 


.77 


7.25 


3.74 


1.37 


White Clover, . 










79.71 


3.80 


.89 


8.14 


5.38 


2.08 


Common Vetch, . 










82.90 


4.04 


.52 


6.75 


4.68 


1.11 


Sainfoin, 










76.64 


4.32 


.70 


10.73 


5-77 


1.84 


Lucerne, or Alfalfa, . 










69.95 


3.83 


.82 


13.62 


8.74 


3.04 


Black Medick, or Nonsuch, 








76.80 


5.70 


.94 


7.73 


6.32 


2.51 



It will be seen in table IX. that in the case of orchard grass 
and the irrigated meadow, the seeds were ripened, and they 
should not, therefore, be compared with other grasses taken in 
the blossom, without considering this fact. It will be seen, too, 
that the specimens analyzed were in the dry state, much drier 
than they could be made by the ordinary process of hay making ; 
for however perfectly the hay is cured it will still contain a very 
considerable percentage of water, and if artificially dried, as in 
the trials given above, and then exposed to the air, it will absorb 
from 10 to 15 per cent, of water, showing that no hay is abso- 
lutely dry by any ordinary processes. In England, the percent- 
age of Avater in well made hay is about 16, and hay artificially 
dried Avill absorb tliat amount if exposed again to the air. I 
do not think the percentage here would be so large, for obvious 
reasons. In the analysis of the hay of the reed canary grass, 



NUTRITIVE VALUE. 



121 



made by Prof. Horsford and given on a preceding page, the 
percentage was but 10.24. That was a well-cured specimen, 
taken after it had passed the period of blossoming, and the 
amount of water is, perhaps, slightly below the average. 

■ Table IX. Analysis of Natural Grasses. {100 parts of the 
gratis dried at 212° Fahr.) 



Name of Grase. 


Albuminous, or 
flesh - forming 
principles. 


U4 

a 
'a 

..J 


Heat -producing 
principles — i 
starch, sugar, 
gum. 


1 


il 


Sweet-scented Vernal Grass, 


10.43 


3.41 


48.48 


36.36 


6.32 


Ueadow Foxtail, . 








12.32 


2.92 


43.12 


33.83 


7.81 


Tall Oat Grass, . 










12.95 


3.19 


38.03 


34.24 


11.59 


Yellow Oat Grass, 










7.48 


2.61 


47.08 


35.95 


6.88 


Downy Oat Grass, 




• 






7.97 


2.39 


49.78 


34.64 


6.22 


Quaking Grass, . 










6.08 


3.01 


46.95 


35.30 


8.66 


Upright Brome Grass, 










9.44 


3.33 


8202 


5.21 


Soft Brome Grass, 










17.29 


2.11 


38.66 


36.12 


5.82 


Crested Dog's-tail, 










11.08 


3.54 


52.64 


26.36 


6.38 


Orchard Grass, 










13.53 


3.14 


44.32 


33.70 


5.31 


Orchard Grass, seeds ripe. 










23.08 


1.56 


26.53 


43.32 


5.51 


Hard Fescue Grass, 










12.10 


3.34 


40.43 


38.71 


5.42 


Meadow Soft Grass, 










11.52 


3.56 


39.25 


39.30 


6.37 


Meadow Barley Grass, 










11.17 


2.30 


46.68 


31.67 


6.18 


Perennial Rye Grass, . 










11.85 


3.17 


42.24 


35.20 


7.54 


Italian Kye Grass, 










10.10 


3.27 


57.82 


19.76 


9.05 


Timothy, 










11.36 


3.55 


53.35 


26.46 


5.28 


Annual Spear Grass, . 










11.83 


3.42 


51.70 


30.22 


2.83 


June Grass, 










10.35 


2.63 


43.06 


38.02 


5.94 


Rough-stalked Meadow Grass, 








9.80 


3.67 


40.17 


38.03 


8.33 


Grass from irrigated meadow, 








25.91 


6.53 


32.05 


25.14 


10.37 


Grass from irrigated meadow, 2d crop. 




10.92 


2.06 


43.90 


34.30 


8.82 



It will be seen that a great difference exists in the valuable 
constituents of the grasses analyzed in this table, ranging as 
follows : — 

Lowest. 

Flesh-forming principles, . . 6.08 
Fat-producing principles, . . 2.11 
Heat-giving principles, . . 38.03 

16 



Highest. 

17.29 
3.67 

57.82 



Average. 

11.68 

2.89 

47.92 



122 



GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 



Table X. Analysis of Artificial Grasses. {In 100 parts of 
the grass dried at 212'^ Fahr.) 



Kame of Plant. 



c , .2" 

si 2 



^ 1 «-" 




= i 3 




s * =< 


« 


?.r"^-^ 


J3 




■a 


d t- J 3 






^ 



U OS 

a o 



Red Clover, 

Perennial Clover, 

Crimson Clover, . 

Cove Grass, . 

Cow Gra53, 2d specimen, 

Hop Trefoil, 

White Clover, 

Common Vetch, . 

Sainfoin, 

Lucerne, or Alfalfa, 

Black Medick, 



22.55 
19.18 
16.60 
24.33 
18.77 
20.48 
18.76 
23.61 
18.45 
12.76 
24.60 



3.67 
4.09 
3.73 
3.57 
4.77 
4.67 
4.38 
3.06 
3.01 
2.76 
4.06 



44.47 


19.75 


42.42 


25.96 


37.50 


32.39 


36.38 


24.14 


49.65 


18.84 


43.86 


22.66 


40.04 


26.53 


39.45 


27.38 


45.98 


24.71 


40.16 


34.21 


33.31 


27.19 



9.56 
8.35 
9.78 
11.60 
7.97 
8.33 
10.29 
6.50 
7.87 
lO.U 
10.84 



A glance at this table will show that the different principles 
in the artificial grasses vary to a great extent, as follows : — 



Flesh-forming principles, . 
Fat-proclucing principles, . 
Heat-giving principles, 



Lowest. 

12.76 

2.76 

33.31 



Highest. 

24.60 

4.77 
49.65 



Average. 

18.68 

3.76 

41.48 



The difference in composition exhibited in the natural grasses 
of table IX. are very marked, and of course, the value of the 
grasses as compared with each other must vary greatly. Still, 
the practical value of a grass depends somewhat upon circum- 
stances which cannot be analyzed, such as the period at which 
it arrives at maturity, and the particular soil and location of 
the farmer. It might happen that a grass not in itself so rich 
in nutritive qualities as another, would be preferred on account 
of its coming to maturity just at the time when the farmer 
most needed it. But the particular value of this table is, that 
it shows the comparative nutritive qualities of the grasses, since 
all the specimens were collected and investigated in the same 
manner, at the same period of growth, — or as nearly as possi- 
ble, — when in the flower, so that whatever sources of error 



NUTRITIVE VALUE. 12B 

might exist to modify the results, they would naturally apply 
to all alike. 

The grasses from the irrigated meadow consisted jDrincipally 
of June, or Kentucky blue grass, rough stalked meadow grass, 
perennial rye grass, meadow soft grass, barley grass, meadow 
oat grass and a few other species, and it will be noticed that in 
combination they abound in flesh and fat-forming principles to 
a greater extent than we should be led to suppose from the 
composition of any one of them alone. 

Our favorite Timothy compares very favorably with the other 
grasses, containing a less percentage of useless matter as woody 
fibre, than any other, except Italian rye grass and crested dog's- 
tail, a grass not common with us, and the irrigated grasses. la 
point of soluble, heat-producing principles, sugar, gum and 
starch, it is surpassed by the Italian rye grass, but by no others. 
The analyses of this grass in its green and dry states in tables 
VII. and IX., fully justify the preference which we have long 
shown for the use of Timothy ; for, as taken from the field at 
the time of blossoming, it will be found to contain less water, 
(table VII.,) a greater percentage of flesh and fat-forming 
principles, and less useless matter in the shape of woody fibre, 
than most of the other grasses. The deductions of science 
certainly correspond, in this case, with the results of practice. 

A comparison of tables VII. and IX. with tables VIII. and X. 
will show the comparative advantages of the use of the artificial 
grasses, in point of albuminous or flesh-forming principles and 
fatty matters. The carbonaceous or heat-producing principles 
remain nearly the same throughout, while the percentage of 
waste matter or woody fibre is less than in the natural grasses. 
This is an important fact, worthy of the careful consideration 
of the farmer. 

In the sixth column of table IX. will be found the percentage 
of ash of each of the grasses analyzed. Table XL contains a 
still further analysis of this ash, which gives all the inorganic 
constituents which the plant derives from the soil and the 
manures furnished to it. It is important and suggestive to one 
who will examine it carefully, as indicating the kind of manure 
which in many cases it may be desirable to apply. 

The first peculiarity which plainly appears from a glance at 
the ash analyses, is the very large percentage of silicates and 



124 



GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 



Table XL Analysis of the Ash of some of the Natural and 
Artificial Grasses. 



Common Name. 


-2 i 

il 

8-0 

■So 

<1 


c3 


."2 
< 

o 

si 

&4 


< 
"3 

02 


■3 
< 

i 


1 
3 


(3 
1 

a 
1 


a 
o 
u 

o 

2 

S' 


1 
o 




o . 




VI 



a ■ 

.■2 8 
S.2 


Meadow Foxtail, .... 


7.8138.75 6.25 


2.16 


.65 


3.90 1.28 


.47 37.03 


- 


9.60 - 


Sweet-scented Vernal, 


6.32,28.36 10.09 

1 


3.39 


1.26 


9.21 2.53 

1 


1.18 32.03 

j 


- 


7.03 4.90 


Downy Oat Grass, 


6.22 36.28 10.82 

1 


3.37 


- 


4.72 3.17 

1 


.72 31.21 

1 


- 


4.05 5.66 


Upright Brome Grass, 


5.2138.48 


7.53 


5.46 


.56 10.38|4.99 


.26 20.33 

1 


- 


10.63 


1.38 


Soft Brone Grass, 


5.82 33.34 


9.62 


4.91 


9.07 


6.64 2.60 


.28 30.09 

1 


.33 


- 


3.11 


Crested Dog's-tail, 


6.38 40.11 


7.24 


3.20 


- 


10.16 2.43 


.18 24.99 


- 


11.60 


- 


Orchard Grass, .... 


5.3126.65 


8.60 


3.62 


2.09 


6.82 2.22 


.59 29.52 


- 


17.86 


3.09 


Orchard Grass, with seeds ripe, . 


6.5132.18 


6.41 


3.98 


2.88 


8.14 3.47 


.23 33.06 


- 


4.87 


4.76 


Hard Fescue Grass, 


5.42 28.53 


12.07 


3.45 


1.38 


10.312.83 


.78 31.84 


- 


8.17 


.62 


Meadow Soft Grass, 


6.37 28.31 


8.02 


4.41 


1.82 


8.31 3.41 


.31 34.83 


- 


3.91 


6.66 


Meadow Barley Grass, 


6.67(56.23 


6.04 


4.29 


- 


6.04 2.42 

1 


.66 20.26 


3.40 


- 


1.66 


Perennial Rye Grass, . 


7.5427.13 


8.73 


5.20 


.49 


9.642.85 


.21 24.67 

1 




13.80 


7.25 


Annual Spear Grass, . 


2.83 16.03 9.11 


10.18 


3.29 


11.69 2.44 


1.57 41.88 


- 


.47' 3.35 


June Grass, .... 


6.94 32.93 10.02 


4.26 


.40 


5.63 2.71 

1 


.28 31.17 

1 


- 


11.25 1.31 


Rough-stalked Meadow Grass, . 


8.3337.50 9.13 


4.47 


.29 


8.80 3.22 


.29 29.40 


- 


6.90 - 


Timothy, 


6.29 31.09 11.29 


4.86 


4.02 


14.94 6.30 


.27 24.25 

1 


- 


.70 


3.24 


Annual Rye Grass, 


6.45 41.79^10.07 


3.46 


- 


6.822-59 


.28 28.99 

1 


.87 


- 


5.11 


Yellow Oat Grass, 


5.28 


35.20 


9.31 


4.00 


- 


7.98 3.07 


2.40 36.06 

1 


.73 


- 


1.25 


Red Clover, 


9.56 


.59 


6.71 


1.85 23.47 

1 


22.624.08 


.26 33.45 

1 


- 


2.39 


1.53 


White Clover, .... 


- 


3.68 


11.53 


7 21,18.03 26.418.15 

1 


1.96 14.33 

1 


3.72 


- 


4.96 


Sainfoin in flower, 


6.37 


3.22 


9.35 


3.28 15 20 24.30|5.03 


.61 31.90 

1 


- 


6.24 


.78 


Sainfoin in seed, . . . . 


6.50 


3.49 


7.97 


2.33 17.36 


29.674.59 


.58 29.61 


1.25 


- 


3.12 


Italian Rye Grass In flower, 


6.97 59.18 


6.34 


2.82 


- 


9.952.23 


.78 12.45 

1 


3.98 


- 


2.27 


Italian Rye Grass in seed, . 


6.40 60 62 

J 


6.32 


1.31 


- 


12.29 2.64 


.3010.77 


.13 


- 


6.68 



potash contained in the natural grasses, and the very small 
comparative percentage of silica in the artificial grasses, the 
red and white clovers. The large percentage of lime and 
carbonic acid attract our attention in the latter. This table is 
exceedingly valuable as suggesting the proper course of manur- 
ing for the most successful cultivation of the various crops con- 
tained in it. 

If now we cast our eye at the analysis of some of our com- 



NUTRITIVE VALUE. 



125 



Table XII. Analysis of Specimens of Weeds, as taken from the 
field, and ii-hen dried. 



Name of Plant. 


a 
.2 

"o 
o 




P 
o 



■S.a 
■< 


U 

s 


to 

.9 

n 


u 

o 




Ox-eye Daisy, ( Cnjsanthemum leucanthemum.) 


June 23, 


71.85 


2.12 


.999 


12.64 


10.51 


1.8G 


Yellow Buttercup, (ivajiuncK^ui acm,) . 


June 13, 


8S.15 


1.18 


.507 


6.26 


3.00 


.91 


SoTTeX, {Riimrx acetosa,) 


July 4, 


75.37 


1.90 


.545 


7.62 


13.04 


1.51 


Dried Specimens of the same. 
















Ox-eye Daisy, 


- - 


- 


7.53 


3.49 


45.02 


37.33 


6.63 


Buttercup, 


- - 


- 


9.93 


4.28 


52.69 


25.34 


7.71 


Sorrel, 


- 


- 


7.71 


2.19 


46.82 


37.16 


6.12 



mon weeds, we shall see how far superior the cultivated grasses 
are in nitrogenous or nutritive principles. 

The albuminous principles are very much less than in either 
the natural or the artificial grasses. 

A line of investigation, both scientific and practical, equally 
interesting and valuable with the foregoing, would lead into the 
comparative nutritive equivalents of hay and other feeding sub- 
stances. This is not the place to discuss that subject in full, 
the line of our present inquiry embracing only the compara- 
tive nutritive values of the grasses themselves. For convenience 
of reference, however, I subjoin the following table, (XIII.,) 
embracing the results of the profoundest researches of many 
distinguished chemists and practical men, both in the labora- 
tory and the barn. Boussingault and others in France, and 
Fresenius, Thaer and others in Germany, have devoted to these 
and similar investigations the best part of their lives. 

It is necessary to remark that tables of nutritive equivalents 
are liable to imperfections, on account of sources of error which 
must exist in the nature of things, as difference of soil, climate, 
season, imperfection of methods of analysis, &c. ; but making 
all allowance for these, and admitting that the table cannot be 
absolutely, and literally correct or perfect, it possesses great 
practical value and interest as giving a good general idea of the 
relative value for feeding purposes, of various agricultural 
products. 



126 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

In regard to the nutritive value, as based on the amount of 
nitrogen or nitrogenous compounds, it may be remarked that 
the latest and most careful experiments, conducted by most 
experienced and competent experimenters, tend to show that 
tliis basis is correct, so far as it can be applied to substances so 
analogous in composition that tliey can be included in one 
group ; as for example, the different root crops possess a nutri- 
tive value in proportion to the amount of nitrogen they contain, 
but the nutritive value of a root ought not to be compared with 
a succulent vegetable, like clover, for instance, by the propor- 
tion of nitrogen in each, merely, without taking into considera- 
tion other properties. In other words, roots may be compared 
with cacli other on that basis merely, and grasses with each 
other, and leguminous plants with each other, but not root 
crops and grasses. This fact is alluded to as a possible source 
of error in some of the earlier researches of Boussingault, and 
not as materially affecting the practical value of the table. 

The mode of using table XIII. is very simple. Good upland 
meadow hay, — or what would be called in New England, good 
English hay, — is taken as a standard of comparison. Now if 
we wished to produce the same results with carrots as with 
one hundred pounds of good, average English hay, we must 
use, according to Boussingault's column of equivalents, 382 
pounds of carrots, or for each pound of hay, 3.82 pounds of 
carrots, and according to the practical experiments mentioned, 
366 pounds, 250 pounds, 225 pounds, 300 pounds, and so on, to 
each 100 pounds of hay. 

According to the theoretical values of Boussingault, 100 
pounds of hay are equal in feeding qualities to 65 pounds of bar- 
ley, 60 pounds of oats, 58 pounds of rye, or 55 pounds of wheat. 
While, according to the experiments of Thaer, 100 pounds of 
hay produced the same effect as 76 pounds of barley, 86 pounds 
of oats, 71 pounds of rye, 64 pounds of wheat. 

With regard to the analyses of tables VII., VIII., IX. and X., 
some allowance should undoubtedly be made for difference of 
climate, since it is well known that grasses, as well as other 
plants, grown rapidly in a hot sun, which we usually have in 
the months of May, June and July, contain a much larger 
amount of nutritive and saccharine matter than those grown 
slower and in a greater amount of available moisture both in 



NUTRITIVE VALUE. 



127 



IX"<Crp u ef w o 



h3 w ►^ *Ti P 



eg &oc«r«ooj5 »■ 

I s i : ^^ 5 Z . I 






Water 
parts. 



100 



to M to ta t^^ M 

CO to t? 



oi tC' >;^ I 



Sg3^Mtoooooao5M 



l-i to 

bo CO CO CO 
CO !*»■ o> o 



to Oa O !*»■ X^ 



O O O 00 



t i-tcOCOhSOCnCOh-' 



to O^C^OlOiCT^ItOJO 



Co CO CO Ci 



tOOt&OOTOiO-4COCOOlOCO 



C» O 1 ~' CO CO -I — • -1 



CSCnCoOMCnCOO 



Nitrofccn in 100 
parts of dried 
substance. 



Nitrogen in 100 
parts of undried 
substaucc. 



Nutritive equi- 
valent. 



f- 


1^ lf> 


o> 


oi to to 


^ 




n 


01 l-l oo 


00 en 


OT 





I 1 rs IS- I o 1 I 



00 00 03 I CO I 



I en -^ I <o \ 



Relative propor- 
tion of r.itro- 
gerized topon- 
:ii trogeijiz ' d 
substances. 



Nutritive equi- 
valent. 



*. to CO CO CO 



CO CO O l-" 



to^^coocot I ooocno 



o o CO 2 , 
o o o o 1 



O V^V^^OiCiO^CJ^^ 












s 



00 to en 


l-i w n^ 


to lf>' 


It- 1 


O O 1 


o 


O 1 


o 


o 


r 


o 


o 


o 




, ^ 2 


or 
1 CO 1 


1 oo 


g 1 


l-i to 
en l<t 
o en 1 


i 


1 1 


s 


i 


1 


1 


1 


8 


Meyer. 


, ^ ;i 


§ S . 


1 g 


3 


o o 1 


s 


o 


8 


o 




8 


8 


8 


Thacr. 


1 o o 


CI en 
o O 1 


1 o 


s 


to ro 

s § 


to 

o 


to 

s 


i 


1 




g 


8 


8 


Pabet. 


1 
1 

j 1 1 1 


1 1 1 


ta 


1 


to to 

§ o 


8 


i 


s 


1 


1 


8 


o 
o 


o 

o 


Schwertz. 


fe g g 

1 "^ 


^ ^ ' 


CO 

1 o 


CO 

o 




CO 


, 


i 


to 
23 


1 


, 


> 




Schweitzer. 



o a 



128 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

the atmosphere and the soil, which is ordinarily present in the 
climate of England. Every observing farmer knows that 
grasses grown on our low, reclaimed swamp lands, for instance, 
make less milk, and less flesh and fat in animals, than the same 
species grown on our dry, upland soils. The same difference 
must exist, to some extent, between our grasses and the grasses 
grown in a comparatively moist climate, where they have the 
advantage of more frequent rains, which push them to a more 
complete development and give them greater luxuriance, in- 
creasing, of course, the quantity of their produce, while their 
quality cannot be improved in the points alluded to. This sub- 
ject will come more properly under discussion in treating of the 



INFLUENCE OF THE SEASONS. 

We now come to consider the influence which the season or 
the climate has upon the quantity and nutritive quality of grass. 
Before entering upon this topic, it is proper to remark, that in 
order to bring together the practical wisdom and judgment of 
some of the best farmers in the State, as well as to be able to 
present some statistical information in regard to the product of 
grass and hay for the past season, I directed the following 
circular to one or more farmers in eyery town in Massachusetts, 
asking for replies from each. 

BoAKD OF Ageicultuke, State House, ) 
Boston, Sept. 1, 1856, ) 

Dear Sir : — Will you have the goodness to reply to the following 
inquiries in reference to the grass and hay crop of your town, accord- 
ing to the best of your judgment and experience ? If circumstances 
prevent your giving it personal attention, will you be kind enough 
to put it into the hands of some one interested in the subject in your 
neighborhood, who will do me the favor to answer it ? 

1. What was the estimated yield of grass and hay in your town 
this season, as compared with others ? If above or below the aver- 
age, how much ? 

2. What, in your opinion, is the effect of a wet or a dry season on 
the quality of grass and hay ? Is grass grown in the shade as good 
as that grown in the sun, and what is the diiference ? 

[This question embraces the intrinsic value of hay this season as compared with the crops of 
1854 and 1855, both comparatively dry seasons, while this has been unusually wet in most parts of 
the State.] 



INFLUENCE OP THE SEASONS. 129 

3. In what month do you prsfer to seed down land designed for 
mowing, and what is the reason of jour preference? 

4. What varieties of grass seed do you usually sow for mowing, 
and what for permanent pasturage, and in what quantities and pro- 
portions, per acre r 

5. Do you prefer to sow grass seed alone in either case, or Avith 
some variety of grain? If the latter, why, and with what grain? 

6. Have you cultivated or raised orchard, fowl meadow, or blue 
joint grasses, and Avith what result as compared with the yield and 
value of other grasses ? 

7. At what stage of growth do you prefer to cut grass to make 
into English and into swale hay, and what is the reason for your 
preference ? 

8. What is the best mode of making hay from Timothy, from red- 
top, and from wet meadow grass, and at what state of dryness do you 
consider it made, or fit to get into the born? 

[This question embraces, to some extent, the time taken to make it under ordinary circum- 
Btances of good weather, &c. This, of course, varies greatly, but some farmers would dry grass 
cut in the blossom two good hay days, while others would prefer to cure it less, and get it in on the 
day it was cut.] 

9. W^U you state in detail how you make or cure clover, and how, 
when so cured, it compares in value with other kinds of hay to feed 
out to farm stock ? 

10. Have you usad hay caps, and if so, with what result, in point 
of economy ? How were they made and at what cost ? 

11. Have jou used a mowing machine, and if so, what patent, 
with what power, and with what advantage ? 

12. At what height from the ground do you prefer to have your 
grass cut, and why? 

13. Have you used a horse-rake, and if so, what patent, and with 
what advantage ? 

14. Do you feed off the after growth of your mowing lands in the 
fall ? Do you think it an injury or a benefit to the field to feed it ofi"? 

15. Do you top-dress your mowing or pasture lands, and if so, 
what manure do you prefer to use, at what time, and in what quantities 
do you apply it ? 

16. "What is the best mode of renovating old worn out pasture 
lands ? 

17. If you have any experience in ditching and draining wet 
meadow, or ditching or diking salt marsh, will you state the result, 
and the comparative value of the grass before and after the operation? 

18. ^V'hat are the most valuable varieties of salt marsh grasses, 
and how does the hay made from them cjmpare in value with good 
English hay ? 

17 



130 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

19. Have you any experience in irrigating mowing or pasture lands, 
and if so, what is the result ? 

20. Do you prefer to salt your hay when putting into the barn, and 
if so, Avhat quantity do you use, per ton ? 

21. What do you consider the best mode of destroying couch or 
twitch grass ? 

22. What is the best mode of destroying the white weed or ox-eye 
daisy ? 

23. Will you give any other details not suggested by the above, 
which, in your opinion, may be considered important, in regard to this 
crop, and particularly if you have experimented Avith any varieties of 
grass not in general cultivation, such as lucerne or alfalfa, rye grass, 
brome grass, Kentucky blue grass, &c., will you state the results as 
fully as possible ? If you have any varieties of grass found to be 
valuable but not in general cultivation, the names of which are not 
known to you, Avill you send them to this office where the names will 
be given ? 

Very respectfully, your obedient servant, 

CHARLES L. FLINT, 
Secretary of the Board of Agriculture. 

I am indebted to the kindness of many enterprising and 
intelligent farmers for fnll and valuable answers froi^ more 
than two hundred towns in the State, and these alone would 
make a valuable volume of themselves. I can, of course, do 
no more than extract from them as freely as space will permit, 
which I shall do at greater length in the subsequent sections. 

No crop, perhaps, is more dependent on the seasons than the 
grasses. Every farmer knows that a moist spring, with rains 
evenly distributed over the months of April, May and June, 
will insure him the most luxuriant crops of grass and hay ; and 
he know^s, also, that a dry, cold spring is fatal to their rapid and 
healthy development, and that he must, in such a spring, expect 
a comparatively small crop. These and many similar facts are 
familiar to the commonest practical observation. 

It has also been found by observation that the grasses will 
vegetate when the temperature of the air is above the freezing 
point of water, 32° Fahrenheit, provided the temperature of 
the soil ranges from 35° to 40,° while a lower temperature 
checks their growth. Vegetation, at temperatures higher than 
these, depends much on the amount of moisture and heat, both 



INFLUENCE OF THE SEASONS. 131 

of the soil and the atmosphere. Grass will not vegetate when 
the temperature of the air is higher than QQ° unless the soil is 
very moist. When the vapor of the air is at its maximum, or 
when the air is saturated with moisture, vegetation advances 
with the greatest rapidity, and this most frequently happens 
with us in the earlier growing months, April, May and June. 
But when the moisture in the atmosphere is slight, and the soil 
becomes dry, and the subsoil is porous, the turf of our iields 
and pastures suffers from the drought, and scarcely a year 
passes over us when this does not happen. 

A writer in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, 
(quoted in the Farmers' Magazine, Yol. ix., No. 5, Third Series,) 
after many careful observations, comes to the conclusion, First. 
That the growth of grass is always proportionate to the heat of 
the air, if a sufficiency of moisture be present in the atmosphere. 
Second. That in the climate of England the moisture present 
is rarely sufficient to allow the temperature to have full effect, 
when that tjn perature exceeds 56°, but that if moisture be 
artificially supplied, as by irrigation, to catch water meadows, 
that then vegetation will still proceed in proportion to the heat. 
Third. That when the temperature of the air is between 36° 
and 41°, the grass will only vegetate with a fifth part of the 
force that it will when the temperature is 56°. Thus the land 
that will keep ten sheep per acre in the latter case, will only 
k^ep two in he forme i'. That from 41° to 46° its growth is 
two-fifths, or double that of its growth when the temperature 
is under 41°, and it will then keop four sheep instead of two. 
Again, from 46° to 5j°, its growth will rite to seven-'": nths, or 
it will keep on the same ground from five to seven sheep, and 
from 50° to (jQ°, i: gener-ll — unless assisted by an artificial 
addition of moisture — arrives at its maximum ; but if the 
month of June be very moist, it will continue to grow with an 
increase of force up to 60°. 

Our climate is very different from that of England. The 
evaporation from the soil is ordinarily very much more rapid, 
and the actual amount of moisture in the air is greater, since 
it is well established that the evaporation is in proportion to the 
height of the temperature and the extent of water or land sur- 
face ; that in the temperate zones it amounts to about thirty- 
seven inches a year, while in the tropics it rises to from ninety 



132 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

to one hundred inches, and that the atmosphere when at the 
freezing point contains about a two-hundredth part of its weight 
of water, while at 52° it contains a liundredth part, or twice as 
much ; at 74°, a fiftieth part, or four times as much, and at 98°, 
a twenty-fifth part, or eight times as mucli, and so on in that 
ratio. Now although the mean annual temperature of the two 
countries is about the same, — it being near London about 48° 
5', and at Boston 48° 9', — yet the temperature of the growing 
months of the two countries presents a marked difference, the 
mean temperature of every one being with us much higher. 
But the climate of England is proverbially moist, notwithstand- 
ing that the mean annual fall of rain near London is only little 
over twenty-five inches, while the quantity which falls at Boston 
is over forty-two inches. The amount of sensible moisture of 
the atmosphere is greater in England than here, though the 
actual amount existing in our atmosphere must excee i that of 
the atmosphere even in the eastern part of England. Our 
soil is consequently dryer, and unless we have frequent rains 
vegetation suffers sooner, and the growth of grass is liable to be 
checked for the want of moisture. This actually happens more 
or less nearly every year. But the spring of the past year was 
an exception, for the quantity of rain in most parts of the State 
was no only somewhat larger than usual, but it was well dis- 
tributed over the spring months ; that is, it fell frequently and 
in small quantities. This, as is usually the case, caused an 
early and remarkably luxuriant growth of grass, while the 
quality was not generally considered so good as the average. 
It may be laid down as a well-fixed principle, that the grass 
crop is better from large quantities of rain falling at once and 
at longer intervih — lovided it does not come in torrents to 
prostrate the crop, and that the intervals are not so long as to 
produce droughts, which are always attended with deleterious 
effects, — than from smaller quantities falling with greater fre- 
quenc ;. The quantity in the latter case will not ordinarily be 
so great as in the former, but it is more than compensated, it 
is thought, by the increased value. More accurate statistics 
will throw light on this subject. 

As a means of comparison, the following table of the mean 
monthly temperature and rain at the observatory at Cambridge, 
during the growing months of 1854, '55 and '56, will be found 



INFLUENCE OF THE SEASONS. 



133 



convenient. The observations were made four times a day, at 
sunrise, 9 A. M., 3 and 9 P. M. The latitude being 42° 22' 
48", the longitude 71° 1'. 



Months. 


Mean Temp, 
in 1854. 


Kain in 
1854. 


Mean Temp, 
in 1855. 


Kain in 
1855. 


BIoanTcmp. 
in 1856. 


Kain ia 

law. 


March, . . . 


33°.l 


2.9-19 


32°.31 


Inches. 

1.159 


26°.98 


Inches. 

0.970 


April, . . • 


42°.9 


4.842 


44°.08 


3.990 


45°.82 


3.732 


May, .... 


57°.7 


5.453 


53°.40 


1.501 


52°.55 


6.732 


June, . . . 


65°.9 


3.585 


65°.48 


3.581 


6S°.08 


2.869 


July, .... 


72°.9 


3.239 


72°.24 


4.845 


72°.76 


4.243 


August, . . . 


68°.6 


0.351 


67°.31 


2.270 


67°.31 


14.981 


September, . . 


61°."4 


4.36 


61°.45 


1.21G 


62°.98 


- 



The mean temperature and the rain at Amlierst, during the 
growing months of 1856, was as follows : — 



Temperature. 

Fahr. 

March, 25°.88 

April, 46°.44 

May, 55°.58 

June, 68°.6G 

July, 72°.93 

August, 66°.19 

September, .... 60°.79 



Amount of Rain. 

Inches. 

March, 1.118 

April, 2.510 

May, 5.313 

June, 1.920 

July, 1.955 

August, 12.132 

September, .... 3.472 



Average of 
18 years. 



Inches. 

3.05 
3.27 
3.91 
3.22 
4.05 
4.40 
3.26 



The first of these places represents the eastern section of the 
State, the second, the western ; and observations made at Boston, 
at Bradford, at Salem and elsewhere in the eastern part, do not 
materially differ fro.n those at Cambridge, while the observa- 



134 



GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 



tions at Williamstown and at Albany, N. Y., do not differ 
materially, so far as practical deductions are concerned, from 
those at Amherst. 

The amount of rain at Worcester, in the central section, in 
1854, '65 and '56, was as follows : — 



1855. 



Average for 
15 years. 



March, . 
April, 

May, . . 

June, . . 

July, . . 

August, . 
September, 



Inches. 

3.45 
6.69 
6.78 
3.05 
5.68 
.35 
5.53 



Inches. 

.23 

5.39 
1.64 
4.19 
9.40 
4.06 
.20 



Inches. 

1.69 
3.34 
6.55 
1.44 

2.68 

13.14 

3.39 



Inches. 

3.29 
3.98 
4.36 
2.93 
3.70 
5.58 
3.47 



The amount of rain at Providence, R. I., on our southern 

border, was as follows : — 





Months. 


For 1858. 


Average of 25 
years. 


April, . 




Inches. 

2.80 


Inches. 

3.57 


• May, . 




4.10 


3.33 


June, 




2.47 


2.95 


July, . 




4.20 


2.91 


August, . 




5.75 


3.70 




19.32 


16.46 



The amount of rain which fell at Bradford, in Essex county, 
in the month of August alone, was sixteen inches, the greatest, 
probably, ever known in one month in New England, while at 
Nantucket it was but a fraction over one inch ; so that while 



INFLUENCE OF THE SEASONS. 135 

the vicinity of Boston and the eastern part of the State, gen- 
erally, was abundantly supplied, the wet meadows being flooded, 
and thousands of tons of swale hay ruined, the island of Nan- 
tucket and some parts of Barnstable and Plymouth counties 
were suftering severely from drouglit, vegetation being entirely 
parched up. 

So great is the dependence of the grasses upon heat and 
moisture combined, that, knowing the results of observations of 
the thermometer and the rain gauge in any section, during the 
three growing months of April, May and June, one might pre- 
dict with great certainty the results of the harvest in that 
section ; and, on the other hand, the returns of practical farm- 
ers in different sections of the State, indicate so clearly and 
uniformly the excess above the average, or the partial failure of 
the crop, that a meteorological map of the State might be con- 
structed from them. 

As might be expected, therefore, from what has already 
been said, the yield of grass and hay throughout most parts of 
this State during the past year, has been somewhat above the 
average, the best judges estimating the excess variously from 
one-eighth to one-half, and it has, doubtless, in some localities, 
reached this latter estimate, though the general average was 
not, probably, over an eighth above that of other years. 

It may be inferred, also, from wdiat has been said, that the 
quality was not quite equal to the average, and this was unques- 
tionably the case, where the excess in quantity was due to the 
excess of moisture and the rains. 

The remarks of an experienced, practical farmer of Ken- 
tucky, express very well the general estimate made by our 
farmers in reply to the second question proposed in the above 
circular. " Just so far," says he, " as there is shade, is the 
grass-deficient in saccharine and nutritious qualities ; that grass 
which is most exposed to the sun being best. Woodland pas- 
tures will keep young stock growing and old ones on foot, but 
will not fatten them. A three-year old Durham will get ' stall 
fat' in a year on open blue grass." And so a farmer of Plamp- 
shire county, says : " Grass grown in the shade is lighter and 
does not contain so much nutriment. Wet seasons increase 
the weight and bulk of the crop, but the same weight does not 
contain the amount of nutritive matter of hay raised in a dry 



136 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

season. And another of Worcester county: " Hay grown in a 
dry season contains more nutriment. This is particularly 
noticeable in the condition of cattle in the spring following a 
dry season. I do not consider grass grown in a dense shade 
worth over half price ;" while a farmer of great observation, in 
Middlesex county, says : " From an experience of fifty years in 
making hay, and thirty-five in feeding it out and selling it, I 
should say that in a wet season I never found any thing like so 
much heart or nutriment in hay as in a dry one. Grass grown 
under a thick, shady tree is not worth one-half as much as that 
grown in the sun. The grass this year in this town was well 
set in the spring and grew very quick when tlie warm weather 
came on, but still we had much good, warm sun to bring it to 
maturity, and I think it will spend pretty well, but probably 
not quite as Avell as the same bulk last year. Since the fifth of 
September we cut our salt hay in this town and never found it 
cleaner or better, and I think it will spend well." And another 
practical farmer remarks : " I think grass and hay are not so 
good in a wet season. We lose about one-third in the quality 
of what we gain in the quantity. Grass grown in the shade is 
not worth more than two-thirds as much as that grown in the 
sun." 

It is not necessary to multiply the authorities of practical 
farmers on this point, since they uniformly coincide with the 
testimony given above, and it may be regarded as fully estab- 
lished as the result both of scientific investigations and of prac- 
tical experience, that both the quantity and the quality of grass 
are in proportion to the heat or sunlight and the moisture in 
which it is grown. 

What has been said will explain the suggestion in the last 
section with respect to the allowance which it may be proper to 
make in the analyses of grass grown in a climate of less heat 
and less sunshine than our own. It will also lead to the conclu- 
sion that our own grasses grown on low, moist lands, are neither 
so sweet nor so nutritious as the same species grown on higher 
and dryer soils ; and it is a fact which has fallen under the 
observation of practical farmers, that the grasses on low lands 
do not produce so much nor so good a quality of milk, nor so 
much fat in animals as the same species of grass grown on up- 
land soils. 



TIME OF SOWING. 13T 

Closely connected with the influence of the seasons is the 

TIME FOR SOWING GRASS SEED. 

More than sixty years ago careful experiments were made in 
this State, in the hope of obtaining such information as would 
settle the question as to the best time of sowing grass seed, and 
the practice of seeding down in the fall was then commenced 
by a few individuals. At and before that time, the practice of 
sowing in the spring was universal, and the same custom has 
generally prevailed till w^ithin a very few years. Both the 
practice and the opinion of the best practical farmers among us 
have changed to a considerable extent, and it is now commonly 
thoijght best to sow grass seed in the fall, early in Septem- 
ber, if possible, mixing no grain or any thing else with it, 
though there are, and always will be, some cases where the 
practice of sowing in the spring with grain is^ convenient and 
judicious. There can be no doubt that it is, in most cases, an 
injury to both crops to sow them together. The following state- 
ment of an experienced and successful farmer will enable us to 
comprehend how the change was brought about, though otliers 
had tried the same experiment long before him. " More than 
twenty years ago we had several dry summers, in the springs 
of which I had sown grass seed with rye, barley and sometimes 
wheat and lost most of my seed by the drought. I could 
scrape it up, the plants being dead and dry, when small. 
Since that time I have universally ploughed after haying and 
sowed Timothy grass and redtop." 

Other farmers probably experienced the same difficulty and 
came to the same conclusion. Our seasons differ greatly to be 
sure, but it is now w'ell understood that we must calculate on a 
drought in some part of the summer, and grass will suffer more 
from drought than from frost. Hence the propriety of fall 
lowing. There are some localities, undoubtedly, where spring 
sowing with grain is best, on the whole, as in the south-eastern 
sections of the State, along the coast, where on account of the 
proximity of the sea, the ground is often but slightly covered 
and protected with snow ; yet even there, some farmers say it 
is better to seed in August and September. Few general rules 

18 



138 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

are of universal application in agriculture, and the farmer 
must constantly exercise sound judgment and common sense. 
One practical farmer of Essex, in answer to the circular, says : 
" I prefer August, because I think it less liable to winter-kill 
than summer-kill. And another greater reason is, that in fall 
seeding I get rid of a crop of weeds, while in spring seeding 
my ground is seeded with them." An experienced farmer of 
Hampshire county, writes : " I rather prefer the last week in 
August for sceduig down land. The reason is, that we fre- 
quently have a summer drought which kills out the young 
grass." One of the best farmers of Middlesex, says: " When 
sown alone I prefer from the 20th of August to the 20th of 
September, If sown sooner, the summer droughts are apt to 
injure the young blades ; if later, they do not have a chance to 
expand and arrive at that degree of maturity necessary ^for a 
good crop the ensuing season." He says, also, that if in any 
case it is found necessary to sow with grain, it should be in the 
spring and not hi the fall. An experienced practical farmer of 
Essex county, recommends " The latter part of August and 
the month of September for seeding down laud to grass for 
mowing, unless that season should be very dry ; in that case, 
sow so soon after a rain as may be. I do not think it advisable 
to sow grass seed when the earth is very dry, as some of it may, 
by the moisture brought up in preparing the land, sprout, but 
not having continued moisture to support it, will wither away, 
•while some of the lighter seeds will, perhaps, swell by moisture, 
but fail to sprout for a lack of nourishment, and consequently 
perish, while others will be blown away by the winds. The 
plant from seed sown in August or September, if the season is 
moist, will take deep root and be prepared to withstand the 
changes of winter. Grass seed sown witli grain in the spring 
is liable to be killed in the hot days of July and August, about 
the time of cutting the grain, particularly on light, sandy or 
gravelly lands. Clover should be sown in the spring as soon 
as convenient after the frost is out of the ground, on laifd 
seeded down the preceding autumn, probably, rather than 
Booner, in the autumn, as the winter is often too severe for the 
tender roots." 

A farmer of Worcester county, says : " On moist land I pre- 
fer to turn over the green sward after haying, with a Michigan 



TIME OF SOWING. 130 

plough, and seed in August, after spreading on a coat of manure 
to give the grass an early start." A farmer of Franklin county, 
writes : " I consider the month of August as the best time to 
seed down land for mowing, with the exception of clover, and 
that I sow early in spring." Another from Hampden : " I 
think August or the early part of September is the best time to 
seed down grass land, as in the fall of the year it will get root 
and not be burned up by the sun, as it would be in spring." 
Another says : " I sow from the middle of August to the middle 
of September. If sown in spring with oats or other grain, the 
young grass is liable to be summer-killed, either choked by the 
ranker growth of the grain, or scorched by the hot sun when 
the grain is taken off. If sown in spring without grain there is 
one season lost." 

A farmer on the Connecticut River states, that " If the sea- 
son is not too dry, August is a good month to seed for mowing. 
Have had very good success in seeding with turnips, or grass 
seed alone, in August or September, to mow the next year ; but 
the usual practice here is to seed with wheat or rye in Septem- 
ber or October. Some seed in spring with oats, but generally 
it does not do well. Clover is more often sown in the spring, 
because it winter-kills." Another, writing from the northern 
part of Worcester county, says: "There is a difference of' 
opinion among farmers in this region on this subject; some 
prefer to sow the grass seed with the spring grain in May, while 
others prefer to sow in August. The latter, no doubt, is the 
best practice, if the ground is sufficiently moist." 

A very successful farmer of Berkshire, ad\'iscs, " August or 
September. I have sown in the month of October with good 
success. Seed sown in August obtains more root than when 
sown later, and consequently, is not as liable to winter-kill. It 
also starts earlier the succeeding spring, thereby keeping down 
the weeds. Much of our moist meadow lands, — too wet for 
hoed crops, and producing but light crops of grass, and that of 
an inferior quality, — may be made to produce well by plough- 
ing and seeding. Let them be ploughed deep in August or 
September, the surface well-harrowed and covered with a light 
coat of compost, ashes or barnyard manure, and seeded, and 
the next year the crop will repay all expense." But on the 
other hand, a practical farmer on the island of Martha's Vine- 



140 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

yard, Duke's county, says : "I prefer seeding down land de- 
signed for mowing, in April, for the reason that if sown in 
March the ground becomes so compact from the effects of heavy 
rains that the seed does not come up well, and if sown in 
August or September the grass does not attain that degree of 
maturity to enable it to withstand the frequent freezing and 
thawing of the succeeding winter. We usually have but little 
snow to protect the young grass on this island. The ol)jcction 
to sowing grass seed after English harvest will not probably 
apply to those places where the winters are less changeable." 

Another says : " I have sown grass seed in the months of 
March, April, May, August, September and October. On a 
rich, compact, retentive soil, seed has done well sown in April 
or May, but I prefer to seed my land of any description in 
August, or on a light snow in March. My reason is, that when 
I have seeded my ground in the spring I have sown rye or oats 
with the grass seed generally ; if not, a crop of weeds would 
come up and usurp the place of the grasses and choke them 
out, and a hot and dry July and August would exterminate 
what escaped the oats and weeds." 

Thus, the opinions and practice of farmers is divided on this 
question, each one being influenced in part by the character of 
his land and his crops. But it will be found that no season is 
without its exposure to loss, for if we sow in autumn and have 
an open and severe winter with frequent changes from compara- 
tively warm and thawing weather to excessive cold, the young 
grass will be likely to suffer, while if we sow in spring with 
some kind of grain, as oats, barley or rye, and have a drought 
in spring or summer, as we generally do, the grass may be 
injured and may be entirely killed. No invariable rule for all 
soils and seasons can be given. But the weight of authority 
seems to fix upon early autumn as the best season to sow grass 
seed ; sowing it alone without a grain crop, and the losses from 
proper seeding down, at that season are probably considerably 
less, in an average of years, than those which arise from spring 
sowing with grain. 

But whatever time may be chosen for sowing, it is very 
important that the seed bed should have been thoroughly tilled 
and properly prepared and manured. But instances have fallen 
under my immediate observation where land which had become 



SELECTION OF SEED. 141 

"hide-bound" and worn out, producing but a light crop of 
grass, was very much benefited by being turned over m Sep- 
tember and having a dressing of compost harrowed m, grass 
seed being then sown alone. The crop even of the next year 
was much greater than that of previous years and nearly paid 
for the labor of ploughing and seeding by its nicrease. 

No rule in regard to the time of seeding down land, which 
should be found to work best in one latitude, would necessarily 
apply in a different climate, and uhder different circumstances 

After having determined upon the time of sowing, the next 
question in the farmer's mind is as to the 

SELECTION OF SEED. 

In -eneral, too little attention is paid to the selection of 
seeds.'not only of the grasses, but of other cultivated plants. 
The farmer cannot be sure that he has good seed unless he 
raises it for himself or uses that raised in his neighborhood. 
He too often takes that which has passed through several hands, 
and wliose origin he cannot trace. Bad or old seed may thus 
be bouoht, in the belief that it is good and new, and the seller 
himself^iay not know any thing to the contrary. The buyer, 
in such cases, often introduces weeds which are very difficult to 
eradicate. The temptation to mix seeds left over from previous 
years with newer seed, is very great, and there can be no doubt 
that it is often done on a large scale. In such cases the buyer 
has no remedy. He cannot return the worthless article and 
the repayment of the purchase money, even if he could enforce 
it would be but poor compensation for the loss of a crop. The 
s4ds of some plants retain their vitality much longer than 
others Those of the turnip, for instance, will germinate as 
well or nearly as well, at the age of four or five years as when 
only one or two years old. But the seeds of most of the 
grasses are of very little value when they have been kept two 
or three years, and hence the importance of procuring new and 
fresh seeds, and guarding against any mixture of the old and 
worthless with the new, as carefully as possible. 

It is easy to tell whether the germinative power of grass or 
any other seed still remains, by the following simple method, 



142 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

and if the buyer should be wilHng to try it, he might purchase 
only a small quantity at first, and afterwards obtain his full 
supply with more confidence if the trial showed it to be good. 
Take two pieces of thick clotli, moisten them with water and 
place them one upon the other in the bottom of a saucer. Place 
any number of seeds which it is desired to try, upon the cloth, 
spreading thin, so as not to allow them to cover or touch each 
other. Cover them over with a tbird piece of cloth similar to 
the others and moistened in the same manner. Then place the 
saucer in a moderately warm place. Sufficient water must be 
turned on from time to time to keep the three thicknesses of 
cloth moist, but great care must be taken not to use too much 
water, as tliis would destroy the seed. There should be only 
enough to moisten the cloths, and not enough to allow any to 
stand in the saucer. Danger from this source may be avoided 
in a great measure, however, by tipping up the saucer so as to 
permit any superfluous water in the saucer to drain off. The 
cloth used for covering may be gently raised each day to w^atch 
the progress of the swelling or the moulding of the seeds. The 
good seed will be found to swell gradually, while the old or 
poor seed, which has lost its germinating power, will become 
mouldy in a very few days. In this way, also, any one can judge 
whether old seed is mixed with new. The latter will germi- 
nate much more quickly than the former. He can judge, 
besides, of the quantity which he must sow, since he can tell 
whether a half, or three-fourths, or the whole will be likely to 
germinate, and can regulate his sowing accordingly. The seeds 
of the clovers, if they are new and fresh, will show their germs 
on the third or fourth day ; other seeds will take a little longer, 
but till they become coated with mould there is hope of their 
germinating. As soon as the mould appears it is decisive, and 
the seed that moulds is worthless. 



MIXTURES OF GRASS SEED. 

It is difficult to overestimate the importance to the farmer of 
a good selection and proper mixture of grass seeds for tlie vari- 
ous purposes of cultivation, for mowing, for soiling, for perma- 
nent pasturage, or for an alternate crop. 



MIXTURES OF SEED. 143 

Doubtless the varieties of seed usually sown in this State, 
consisting almost exclusively of Timothy and redtop, with a 
mixture of red clover, are among the best for our purposes, 
and their exclusive use is, in a measure, sanctioned by the expe- 
rience and practice of our best farmers ; yet, it would seem 
very strange indeed, if this vast family of plants, consisting of 
thousands of species and varieties, and occupying, as already 
intimated, nearly a sixth part of the whole vegetable kingdom, 
could furnish no more than two or three truly valuable species. 

When we consider also, that some species are best adapted to 
one locality, and others to another, some reaching their fullest 
and most perfect development on clay soils and some on lighter 
loams and sands, we cannot but wonder that the practice of 
sowing only Timothy and redtop on nearly all soils, clays, 
loams and sands indiscriminately, both on high and low land, 
should have become so prevalent.- It is equally remarkable 
that while but very few of our grasses, and these for the most 
part species peculiar to sterile soils, flourish alone, but nearly 
all do best with a mixture of several species, it should so con- 
stantly have been thought judicious to attempt to grow only 
two prominent species together with merely an occasional addi- 
tion of an anniial or a biennial clover, which soon dies out. 
When this course is pursued, unless the soil is rich and in good 
heart, the grass is likely to grow thin and far between, produc- 
ing but half or two-thirds of a crop, whereas the addition in 
the mixture of a larger number of species, would have secured 
a heavier burden of a better quality. These considerations, it 
seems to me, indicate the true direction in which the farmer 
who wishes to " make two spires of grass grow where one grew 
before" without impoverishing the soil, should turn his at- 
tention. 

I hold this proposition to be indisputable, that any soil will 
yield a larger and more nutritious crop if sown with several 
kinds of nutritious grasses, than when sown with only one or 
two species. Indeed, it is a fact well establislied by careful 
experiment, that a mixture of only two or three species of 
grasses and clover, will produce a less amount of hay than can 
be obtained by sowing a larger number of species together. 
There may be some exceptions to this rule, as in cases where 
the yield of Timothy and redtop, owing to the peculiar fitness 



144 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

of the soil for these grasses, is as great as can stand on the 
ground covered by them. 

But it is nevertheless true, that if we sow but one kind of 
grass, however abundantly the seed may be scattered, or on 
whatever soil it may be, or under however favorable influences, 
yet only a part of the plants will flourish ; vacant spaces will 
occur throughout the piece which will be filled up after a time 
by grasses of an inferior quality, weeds or mosses. This is the 
case in some degree also, where only two, or a small number of 
species are sown ; while if a mixture made up of a larger num- 
ber of kinds of seed is used, the plants will cover the entire 
surface and produce a far better quality of herbage. 

In sowing such a mixture of several different species, we do 
but follow nature, who after all, will generally be found to be 
the best teacher, for wherever we cast our eyes over an old, rich, 
permanent pasture, we ordinarily see from fifteen to twenty 
species of grass or forage plants growing in social profusion. 
If the soil be very poor, as a cold, hard clay, or a barren sand, 
perhaps two or three varieties will suffice, but on good soils a 
larger number will be found to be far more profitable. Espe- 
cially is this the case where the land is to be left in grass for 
some years and eventually be pastured, as is frequently done in 
New England, for it is then desirable to have grasses that reach 
their maturity at different times, as a constant succession of 
good feed throughovit the season may thus more surely be 
obtained. It is well known that there is no month of spring 
or summer in which some one of the grasses does not attain to 
its perfection, if we except the month of March. For .good 
soils, eight or ten species of the grasses or six or eight of the 
grasses proper and one or more of other herbage plants would 
probably be found to be profitable. 

I am aware that the prevailing practice is decidedly against 
the use of any thing but Timothy, redtop and clover, and that 
very large crops of these grasses are often raised, but it is nev- 
ertheless true that we obtain on an average less than a ton to 
the acre, while with the same culture and a larger number of 
species we ought to get double that quantity. 

Before proceeding to consider the proportions in which the 
different species should be mixed, it may be well to refer to the 
mode generally adopted for estimating the quantities of seeds 



MIXTURES OF SEED. 146 

their relative weigiit. And I may remark here that the pre- 
vailing practice of buying and sowing grass seeds by measure 
rather than by weight, seems injudicious to say the least. It is 
well known that old or poor seed weighs less than that which is 
fresh and new. Now if a farmer buys by weight, even if he 
does get an old or inferior quality of seed, he gets a much 
larger number of seeds, and this larger quantity of seed which 
he receives for his money, may make up for the inferior quality, 
and he will have a larger number of seeds capable of germina- 
tion than he would have if he bought by measure. It is to be 
regretted that it has become so nearly universal to purchase by 
measure, thouglt as this course is for the seller's advantage, it 
may be difficult to change the custom. 

The following table, containing the weight per bushel of the- 
seeds of the most important agricultural grasses, has been pre- 
pared chiefly from a valuable treatise on the grasses by the 
Messrs. Lawson, of Edinburgh, who have paid much atten- 
tion to this subject, and whose experience and observation in 
the practical culture of the grasses has probably been larger 
and more extensive than those of any other seedsmen. 

This table will bo found to be exceedingly valuable for 
reference. 

Column 1 contains the common names of the grasses. 

Column 2, the average number of pounds in a bushel of the 
seeds. 

Column 3, the average number of seeds in an ounce. 

Column 4 shows the depth of soil in inches and fractions of 
an inch at which the greatest number of seeds germinate. 

Column 5 shows the depth of soil in inches and fractions of 
an inch at which only one-half the seeds germinated. 

Column 6 shows the least depth of soil in inches or frac- 
tions of an inch at which none of the seeds germinated. 

Column 7 shows the average percentage of loss in the weight of 
the grass in making into hay, when cut in the time of flov;cring. 

The weight of seeds varies, of course, somewhat, from that 
stated in the above table, according to their qnality. Those 
given in the table are the average weights of good, merchant- 
able seed. In some States, as in Wisconsin, for instance, the 
legal weight of Timothy seed is forty-six pounds to the bushel. 
The weight of a busliel will depend in part, also, upon the 

19 



146 



GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 



thoroughness "wnth which it is cleaned. The seeds of the differ- 
ent varieties of rye grass differ in weight, varying from twenty 
to thirty pounds per bushel ; but the average is about twenty- 
six pounds. 



Table XIV. Weight of Gi'ass Seeds, and depth of Covering. 



1. 


5. 


3. 


4. 


5. 


6. 


7. 


VVhitetop, . . . 








13 


500,000 


Otoi 


•J to 3 


1 


.05 


Itodtop, 








12 


425,000 


- 


- 


- 


.63 


Hassock Grass, . 








14 


132,000 


to J 


-2 to 1 


2i 


.65 


Meadow Foxtail, . 








5 


70,000 


to f 


1 toli 


2i 


.57 


Sweet-scenteJ Vernal, 








6 


71,000 


to } 


1 tolj 


2 


.45 


Tall Oat Grass, . 








7 


21,000 


Uos 


IJ to 13 


4 


- 


Slender Wheat Grass, . 








10 


15,500 


to| 


h to i 


2 


- 


Crested Dog's-tail, 








26 


28,000 


- 


- 


- 


- 


Orchard Grass, . 








12 


40,000 


Oto J 


1 tol 


2i 


.29 


Hard Fescue, 








10 


89,000 


to i 


3 tol 


2-1- 


- 


'fall Fescue, 








14 


20,500 


Otoj 


1 toll 


03 


.52 


Sheep's Fescue, . 








14 


04,000 


to,' 


3 tol 


2 


.65 


Meadow Fescue, . 








14 


26,000 


to A 


J to 1 


2'r 


.60 


Slender, or Spiked Fescue, 








15 


24,700 


- 


- 


- 


- 


Red Fescue, 








10 


39,000 


- 


- 


- 


- 


Reed Meadow Grass, . 








13 


58,000 


i to i 


J tol 


2J 


.30 


Common Blauna Grass, 








15 


33,000 


~ 


- 


- 


.35 


Meadow Soft Grass, . 








7 


95,000 


i to i 


J to 1 


^ 


.73 


Italian Rye Grass, 








15 


27,000 


Oto J 


1 toll 


3j- 


- 


Perennial Rje Grass, . 








13 to 30 


15,000 


i to^ 


li to 13 


3} 


.50 


Millet Grass, 








25 


80,000 


i to i 


1 to ;f 


23 


.38 


Reed Canary Gra^s, . 








43 


42,000 


- 


- 


- 


.32 


Timothy, 








44 


74,000 


to i 


I tol 


2 


.50 


Wood Meadow Grass, . 








15 


173,000 


- 


- 


~ 


.31 


Jime, or Spear Grass, 








13 


243,000 




- 




.57 


Rough-stalked Meadow Gra 


ss, . 






15 


217,000 


to 1 


i to ■; 


1.^ 


.72 


Beach Grass, 








15 


10.000 


i to 1 


li to 1' 


4 


- 


Yellow Oat Grass, 








5S 


118,000 


Oto.i 


1 tol 


2 


- 


Red Clover, . 








64 


16,000 


Oto A 


1.] to l_i 


2 


- 


Perennial Clover, 








64 


16,000 


Oto I 


li to 1| 


2 


- 


White Clover, 








C5 


32,000 


OtO;[ 


itO 3 


la' 


- 


r.ucerne, 








60 


12,600 


- 


- 


- 


- 


Sainfoin, 








26 


1,280 


|tol 


2 to2i 


4| 


- 



MIXTURES OF SEED. 147 

The number of seeds of each species in a pound, may be 
found, of course, by multiplying the numbers in column tliroe 
by sixteen, tlie number of ounces in a pound. It is obvious, 
however, that these numbers must vary, like the number of 
pounds in a bushel, for it is evident that the lighter the seed, the 
greater will be the number of seeds in a pound. The numbers 
stated are the average obtained by careful and repeated trials. 

The results obtained in columns 4, 5 and G, were obtained 
by careful experiment, and will be found to be very suggestive. 

The fact that the soil used in the experiments to ascertain the 
proper depth of covering was kept moist during the process of 
germination, though freely exposed to the light, accounts for 
the large number of seeds germinated without any covering 
whatever. In ordinary field culture some slight covering is 
desirable ; but the figures in column 6 sliow the important fact 
that in our modes of sowing and covering there must be a 
great loss of seed from burying too deep, though the depth 
should be governed somewhat by the nature of the soil, as its 
usual moisture or dryness. 

I have already expressed my opinion that we limit our mix- 
tures to too i'ew species, thus failing to arrive at the most profit- 
able results, and have said that, in a piece of land seeded with 
one or two favorite grasses only, small vacant spaces will be 
found, which, in the aggregate will diminish very considerably 
the yield of an acre, even though they may be so small as not 
to be perceived. It might be thought that this could be 
avoided by putting into the ground a very large number of 
seeds. But a knowledge of the quantities of seed ordinarily 
used in this State for sowing, and an inquiry as to the number 
of plants necessary to cover the ground with a thick coating of 
grass, will show that this is not the case. I have in my posses- 
sion letters from some of the best farmers in Berkshire, Plymouth 
and other counties of the Commonwealth, in which they state it 
to be the prevailing practice to sow a bushel of redtop, a half 
bushel of Timothy, and from four to six pounds of red clover to 
the acre. Some of them vary the proportions a little, as by the 
use of one peck of Timothy and a larger quantity of clover, 
but the general practice is to use nearly the quantities stated, 
some even using a considerable larger quantity. Now if we ex- 
amine the table we shall find that in an ounce of redtop seed there 



148 



GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 



are 425,000 grains. In a pound there are 6,800,000 seeds: 
in a bushel, or twelve pounds, there are 81,000,000 seeds. Now 
take only one peck of Timotliy seed to mix v/ith it. In an 
ounce of Timothy grass seed there are 74,000 grains. In a 
pound there are 1,204,000 grains. In eleven pounds, or a peck, 
there are 13,244,000 seeds, and if we take but four pounds of 
clover, which is below the average quantity used, we shall find 
by the same process that we have 1,024,000 seeds. If now we 
add these sums together, we shall find that we have put upon 
the acre no less than 95,868,000 seeds ! This gives over 15 
seeds to the square inch, or about 2,200 seeds to the square 
foot ! 

Again, one of the most intelligent farmers of Middlesex 
county, a practical man, uses five pecks of redtop and twelve 
quarts of Timothy seed per acre, for mowing lands, and an 
addition of five pounds of white clover for pastures, making no 
less than 124,426,000 seeds per acre. There must be, evidently, 
an enormous waste of seed, or an extensive destruction of 
plants, for if we take nature for our guide, we shall not find- any 
thing like that amount of plants on an inch or a foot of our 
grass lands. Now let us see from a very careful trial how many 
plants and how many species are to be found in a square foot. 



Table XV. Average number of Plants and Species to the square 
foot of Sward. 



CHARACTER OF THE TURF. 



A square foot tp.ken from the richest natural pasture, capable of 
fattening one large ox or three sheep to the aero, vras found to 
contain . . 



2. Rich old pasture, capable of fattening one large os and three 

sheep, per acre, 

3. Another old pasture contained 

4. An old pasture of a damp, moist, and mossy surface, 

5. A good pasture, two years old, laid down to rye grass and white 

clover, 

6. A sod of narrow-leaved meadow grass, (poa angustifolia,) six years 

old, . . 

7. A sod of meadow foxtail by itself, sis years old, .... 

8. live Grass by itself, same age, 

9. Meadow, irrigated and carefully managed, 




MIXTURES OF SEED. 149 

These plants in eacli instance were counted with the utmost 
care by a farmer now living in this State, then in the employ of 
Mr. Sinclair, and the correctness of liis results may be relied on. 

Now it is a well known fact that the sward of a rich old pas- 
ture is closely packed, filled up, or interwoven with plants and 
no vacant spaces occur. Yet, in a closely crowded turf of such 
a pasture, only one thousand distinctly rooted plants were found 
on a square foot, and these were made up of twenty different 
species. The soil should be supplied with a proper number of 
plants, else a loss of labor, time and space will be incurred ; 
but however heavily seeded a piece may be with one or two 
favorite grasses, small vacant spaces will occur, wliicli, though 
they may not seem important in themselves, when taken in the 
aggregate, will be found to diminish very considerably the yield 
of an acre, even if they are so small as not to be perceived. 
And undoubtedly some allowance should be made for the seeds 
and young plants destroyed by insects, birds and various acci- 
dental causes ; but even after all deductions for these, we see 
that in this State, at least, there is no deficiency in the quanti- 
ties of seed used, and the imperfectly covered ground cannot 
be explained in this way. 

The above table is also important as an illustration of the 
truth of my general proposition. It shows that in those pas- 
tures where few species wore found together, whether in old, 
natural pastures or in artificial meadows, the number of plants 
on a given space was proportionably small. Sinclair, too, who 
had observed carefully and extensively, writes on this point in 
regard to the practice of overseeding, as follows : " When an 
excess of grass seed is sown, the seeds, in general, all vegetate, 
but the plants make little, if any progress, until from the want 
of nourishment to the roots, and the confined space for the 
growth of the foliage, a certain number decay, and give the 
requisite room to the proper number of plants ; and that will 
be according as there are a greater or less variety of different 
species of grasses combined in the sward." 

It is proper to make some allowance for bad seed, it is true, 
but our practice is defective and uneconomical. In the exami- 
nation of the rich and productive pasture turf, from twelve to 
twenty species were found closely mixed together, and there 
were six or seven plants to the square inch. We sow seed 



150 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

enough, frequently, for fifteen plants to the inch, but rarely ob- 
tain above two or three, and very frequently even less than that. 

The difficulty of procuring the seed, and its expense, have 
been the strongest objections to the use of many species. A 
demand for these species, however, would soon remove this 
difficulty, and varieties would be kept for sale in Boston at a 
reasonable price. When it is considered that the additional 
expense of sowing a field or permanent pasture with a greater 
number of species will be, comparatively, very small, while the 
additional yield will be proportionably largo, — if the result is 
as favorable as the opinion of many who have made the trial 
would lead us to expect, — every farmer must admit that it is 
for his interest to try the experiment, on a small scale, at least. 

It will he evident, after a moment's reflection, that very dif- 
ferent mixtures, both as regards the species and the relative 
quantities of each, will be desirable for different soils ; that dis- 
similar mixtures would be required for alternate cropping or 
laying down land for only a year or two, and for permanent 
pasture. In our pratice it is most common to seed down for 
some years, and not unfrequently this is done with the design 
of cutting the grass for hay for a few years and then pasturing 
the field, in which case our seeding down assumes the charac- 
ter of laying down for permanent pasturage. Equally good, 
but very different mixtures might be made, also, for the same 
soils by different individuals who had different objects in view, 
some desiring a very early crop, some wishing to select species 
which resist the access of profitless weeds, and others to cultivate 
those varieties which exhaust the soil the least. Each of these 
mixtures may be best adapted to the specific object of the 
farmer who makes it, and if composed of a sufficient number of 
species, may be good and truly economical. 

The practice with many in New England has already been 
alluded to as consisting usually of one bushel, or twelve pounds 
of redtop, a half a bushel, or twenty-two pounds of Timothy, and 
from four to six or eight pounds of clover. The practice of 
good farmers varies but little from this mixture. 

The following tables are recommended by Lawson & Son, of 
Edinburgh. Only a few of the mixtures have been sufficiently 
tried in this country, and they may need some modification to 
meet the exigencies of our severe droughts. It may be proper 



MIXTURES OF SEED. 



151 



to remark here that the climate of Scotland, in some respects, 
does not differ much from our own. The latitude of Edinburgh 
is 55° 57', that of Boston, 42° 21' ; while the mean annual tem- 
perature of the former is 47°. 1 Fahr., that of the latter, 48°. 9, 
showing a very slight difference. But our summers are hotter, 
and we are annually liable to the most severe and parching 
droughts, such as are not often felt in Scotland. 

The quantities are stated in pounds. If any one is desirous 
of reducing them to measures he may easily do so by the use 
of table XIY., which gives the weight per bushel of each species. 

Table XVI. For Permanent Pasture. 



Meadow Foxtail, 2 pounds. 

Orchard Grass, 6 

Hard Fescue, 2 

Tall Fescue, 2 

Meadow Fescue, 2 

Italian Rye Grass, ........ 6 

Perennial Rye Grass, 6 

Timothy, 4 

Iledtop, 2 

Rough-stalked Meadow Grass, 3 

Red Clover, 2 

Perennial Clover, ......... 3 

White Clover, 5—15 



Here we have a considerable number of species, and accord- 
ing to table XIV., over 45,500,000 seeds. Thus, though we use 
less than half as many seeds as our farmers generally do, we 
still allow more than seven seeds to the square inch, or over 
1,000 seeds to the square foot, a number larger than the number 
of plants found in the rich and closely woven sward of an old 
pasture, as seen in table XV. These, it will be seen, even if 
we make a large allowance for bad se«ds, will produce as many 



152 



GRASSES J^D FORAGE PLANTS. 



plants as will grow well, while we still have by far tlie largest 
number of stalks of redtop from no less than 3,600,000 seeds, 
though the weight of the redtop seed is but two pounds. This 
mixture is designed for one acre sown without grain in the fall. 
A mixtnre like the above would answer very well, and is less 
expensive than the following, though it is prol^able that the 
greater original outlay for the seeds recommended in the follow- 
ing table will be more than returned in the additional yield. 

Table XVII. For Permane7it Pasture. 



Meadow Foxtail, . 

Orchard Grass, 

Hard Fescue, 

TaU Fescue, .... 

Meadow Fescue, . 

Redtop, 

June Grass, .... 
Italian Rye Grass, 
Perennial Rye Grass, . 
Timothy, .... 
Wood Meadow Grass, . 
Rough-stalked I\Ieadow Grass, 
Yellow Oat Grass, 
Perennial Clover, . 
White Clover, 



2 pounds. 

4 

2 

2 

2 

o 



3 
2 

2 

1 
2 

5—45 



If the cultivator desires to produce a close, matted sv/ard as 
soon as possible, no broad-leaved clover sliould be used, and the 
above mixture will be quite sufficient without the perennial 
clover. 

If the object be to make a permanent lawn, as is frequently 
desirable around or in sight of the farm house, something like 
the following mixture v/ill be found to be on the whole the best. 



MIXTURES OF SEED. 163 

Table XVIII. Permanent Laivn Grasses in Mixture. 



Meadow Foxtail, 
Sweet-scented Verntol Grass, . 

Redtop, 

Ilard Fescue, .... 

Sheep's Fescue, 

Mftadow Fescue, 

Red Fescue, .... 

Italian Rye Grass, . 

Perennial Rye Grass, 

Timothy, 

June, or Common Spear Grass, 
Rough-stalked Meadow Grass, 
Yellow Oat Grass, . 
Perennial Clover, . 
Red Clover, .... 
White Clover, 



1 pound. 

1 

2 

3 

1 

4 

2 

6 

8 

1 

2 

2 

1 

2 

2 

6—44 



This mixture will resist the effects of our severe droughts 
better than those commonly used for lawns. If any thing is 
omitted from it, the red and perennial clovers, the yellow oat 
grass and a part of the rye grass could best be spared. 

If the farmer wishes to seed down for only a year or two 
and then to break up again, the following is a good mixture. 
[Table XIX.] 

If the soil be moist or peaty two or three pounds of fowl 
meadow, {poa serotina,^ should be added. Some would prefer 
another mixture for permanent lawn pastures, as found in table 
XX. 

If a fine lawn is wanted where extra attention will be paid to 
rolling and mowing, the mixture given in table XXI. will do well. 

A mixture is often wanted for orchards or shaded fields 
similar to that recommended in table XXII. 

20 



154 GRASSES AND FOUAGE PLANTS. 

Table XIX. Mixture for Moioing in the Rotation. 



NAMK OF GRASS. 



Redtop, 

Italian Ilye Grass, . 
Perennial liye Grass, 
Orchard Grass, 
Timothy, . 
Red Clover, 
Perennial Clover, 
White Clover, . 



3 


3 


6 


6 


3 


3 


4 


6 


11 


9 


8 


i 
4 


- 


2 


2 


^l 


37 


37 



37 



Table XX. Permanent Laion Pastures. 



Meadow Foxtail, 

Sweet-scented Vernal Grass, . 

Orchard Grass, 

Hard Fescue, . . . . 

Sheep's Fescue, 

Meadow Fescue, 

Italian Rye Grass, . 

Perennial Rye Grass, 

Timothy, . . . . 

Redtop, . . . . 

Rough-stalked Meadow Grass, 

Yellow Oat Grass, . 

Red Clover, . . . . 

Perennial Red Clover, . 

White Clover, 



1 pound. 

1 

3 





6 
4 
7 
3 
3 
1 
2 
2 
4— 4S 



MIXTURES OF SEED. 
Table XXI. Fine Lawns frequently Mown. 



155 



Crested Dog's-tail, . 

Hard Fescue, . . . . 

Slender-leaf Sheep's Fescue, . 

Perennial Rye Gi'ass, 

Wood Meadow Grass, 

Rou^-stalked Meadow Grass, 

Yellow Oat Grass, . 

June Grass, . . . . 

White Clover, 



10 pounds. 
4 
2 

10 
2 

1 
1 

8 
8—46 



Table XXII. Hay and Pasture in Orchards and Shaded Places. 



Sweet-scented Vernal Grass, . 
Orchard Grass, 

Hard Fescue, . . . . 
Tall Fescue, . . . . 
Italian Rye Grass, . 
Perennial Rye Grass, 
Timothy, . . . . 

Wood Meadow Grass, 
Rough-stalked Meadow Grass 
, June Grass, . . . . 
Perennial Rod Clover, . 
White Clover, 



1 pound. 

6 

2 

2 

4 

4 

6 

4 

2 

4 

3 

4^42 



For very sandy, dry pastures and heathy moors, the follow- 
ing. [Table XXIII.] 

For reclaimed swamps, after draining, designed to be kept in 
gi-ass for hay, the mixture stated in table XXIV. is good. 



156 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

Table XXIII. Mixture for Mowing on Light Sands. 



Tall Meadow Oat Grass, 
Orchard Grass, 
Hard Fescue, . 
Meadow Soft Grass, 
Italian Rye Grass, . 
Perennial Rye Grass, 
Timothy, 

Perennial Red Clover, . 
White Clover, 



3 pounds. 
4 



4 

10 • 
3 
3 
4—40 



Table XXIV. Mixture for Reclaimed Peaty Lands. 



Whitetop, variety called Florin, 

Redtop, 

Meadow Foxtail, 
Fowl Meadow, 
Italian Rye Grass, . 
Perennial Rye Grass, 
Reed Canary Grass, 
Timothy, .... 

Rough-stalked Meadow Grass, 
White Clover, 



2 pounds. 
2 

2 
4 
4 
5 
4 
10 
3 
4—40 • 



If a reclaimed meadow is subject to occasional overflows of 
fresh water, the addition of two or three pounds of the manna 
grass, (^lyceria fluitans,') if it can be had, will be an improve- 
ment. On such soils Fiorin, a variety of whitetop, does remark- 
ably well, and the rough stalked meadow is indispensable. A 
mixture especially adapted to such situations would be some- 
thing like the following : — 



MIXTURES OP SEED. 



15T 



' Table XXV. Marshy Grounds, liable to be occasionally 
overjlowed with fresh water. 



NAME OF GRASS. 




Alluvial Soils. 



Florin, ..... 
Tall Fescue, .... 
Manna Grass, 
Reed Canary Grass, 
Timothy, .... 
Rough-stalked Meadow Grass, 
Fowl Meadow Grass, . 
White Clover, 



o pounds. 

4 

5 

4 

4 

3 

5 

4—32 



If it be desired to cover rocky and gravelly hills and soils of 
a very poor quality with grass, the mixture in the following 

table will be most serviceable. 

Table XXVI. Mixture for Rocky Hills 



Redtop, . 
Tall Oat, 
Crested Dog's-tail, 
Orchar 1 Grass, 
Red Fescue, . 
Meadow Soft Grass, 
Perennial Rye Grass, 
Timothy, 

Wood Meadow Grass, 
Common Spear Grass, 
Rough-stalked Meadow, 
White Clover, 



2 pounds. 
2 

3 
3 

4 
2 

6 
6 
3 
2 

2 
8—43 



158 



GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 



If the soil be very dry, the wood meadow grass and the 
Thuothy may bo omitted from tlic above mixture, and a larger 
quantity of June grass used. The following mixture is well 
adapted to dry, gravelly soils, which are difficult to turf over. 

Tabxe XXVII. Mixture for Brtj Gravels. 



Redtop, . 
Tall Oat Grass, 
Red Fescue, . 
Meadow Soft Grass, 
Soft Brome Grass, . 
Perennial Rye Grass, 
June Grass, 
White Clover, . 



3 pounds. 

8 
4 
4 
4 
5 
4 
4— 3G 



For protecting banks of rivers and streams from washing and 
wearing away, the reed canary grass and the reed meadow grass 
will be found very effectual. For preventing the drifting of 
light sand, beach grass, (^a^nmophila artmdhiacea,') is one of the 
best. It is extensively used for this purpose at Provincetown 
and . various other places along the coast. I have sown the 
seeds of other species in such situations, but know of none 
equal to beach grass for the purpose of fixing moving sands. 

As already seen, the general practice in New England is in 
strong contrast with the foregoing tables of mixtures, for of 
the two hundred towns heard from, all appear to raise the same 
species, but no two recommend the same quantities for mixture, 
and not one reports the use of more than two species of grass 
mixed with one or sometimes two species of clover, as at all 
common. 

As examples of the general practice as reported to me, and 
with which I have been familiar for many years, the following 
might be st.ited. 

I. ^ bushel (0 lbs.) redtop, 1 peck (11 lbs.) Timothy, 5 lbs. red clover. 
II. 1 1 ushel (12 lbs.) redtop, 1 peck Timothy, 8 lbs. red clover. 
TIT. 1| bushels (18 lbs.) redtop, 4 qts. (5^ lbs.) Timothy, 3 fe. red clover. 



MIXTURES OF SEED. 159 

IV. 3 pecks (9 lbs) redtop, G quarts Timothy, G lbs. clover. 

V. 1 bushel (12 lbs.) redtop, 1 bushel (44 lbs.) Tim'y, 10 to 15 lbs. clover. 

VI. 1 peck (3 lbs.) redtop, 1 peck (11 lbs.) Thiiothy, 8 lbs. clover. 

VII. 4 quarts (11 lbs.) redtop, 1 peck (11 lbs.) Timothy, 2 quarts red 

clover, 1 pint white clover. 

Vm. 16 quarts, (6 lbs.) redtop, 12 q'ts (161 lbs.) Timothy, 6 lbs. clover. 

IX. 12 quarts (161 lbs.) Timothy, 4 lbs. clover. 

X. 1 bushel (12 lbs.) redtop, ^ bushel (22 lbs.) Timothy, 10 lbs. clover. 

XI. 1 peck redtop, 3 pecks Timothy, 6 lbs. clover. 

Xn. 3 pecks redtop, 1 peck Timothy, 5 lbs. clover. 

XIII. 1 bushel finetop, 1 peck Timothy, 8 lbs. clover. 

XIV. 1 bushal redtop, 1 peck Timothy, 12 lbs. clover. 
XV. 16 quarts redtop, 10 quarts Timothy, 6 lbs. clover. 

XVI. 1 bushel redtop, -J- bushel Timothy, 10 lbs. clover. 

XVII. 5 packs redtop, ^ bushel Timothy, 4 lbs. clover. 

XVin. 1 bushel redtop, 1 peck Timothy, 8 lbs. clover. 

XIX. 1 peck redtop, 1 peck Timothy, 10 lbs. clover. 

XX. 3 pecks redtop, 8 to 10 quarts Timothy, 6 to 8 lbs. clover. 

These mixtures are sufficient to show the exceeding diversity 
in our practice. 

A little attention to the weight of the different seeds recom- 
mended in the above tables will explain why one particular 
quantity which may appear small at first sight, is sufficient in 
some cases, as it will show a vast diiierence in their weight ; a 
given number of pounds of some species containing many more 
seeds, and therefore producing a far larger number of plants, 
than an equal weight of others. 

There are few points in our practice, it seems to me, where 
greater improvements could be made than in the selection and 
mixture of our grass seeds. If the money which is now 
literally thrown away by over-seeding with one or two species 
were expended in procuring other species and improving our 
mixtures, there is but little doubt that the aggregate profit on 
our grass crop would be much greater than it now is. 

Some maintain that one or two species are sufficient, because 
certain grasses arc -'natural," as they say, to their land, and 
come in of themselves. This may, in some cases, be true to 
some extent, for such grasses will come in, in time, but we are 



160 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

liable to lose sight of the fact that the loss of a full yield, in 
the meantime, is often very serious. 

But the inference which farmers draw from this fact is not a 
legitimate one, for they say that it proves that the grasses that 
come in " naturally," that is, the wild grasses, are best adapted 
to the soil, and will produce more largely than others in that 
locality. But this, if carried out to its natural consequences, 
would lead to the conclusion that new species of plants should 
never be introduced into any soil, because those best suited to 
it grow there " naturally " — a principle which no man will 
assert. On the contrary, one great object of all intelligent 
farming is to improve upon nature, and to increase the natural 
capacities both of the soil and of the plants which grow on it ; 
and the introduction of new species and varieties is one of the 
most eifectual means of accomplishing this end. Particular 
species of plants do not always spring up in particular places 
because they are peculiarly adapted to the soil, but often from 
mere accident. Seeds are carried by the wind or by animals or 
birds, and being dropped, produce plants on the spot where they 
fall. These plants again produce seeds which fall and in their 
turn produce other plants. Thus a particular species of grass 
or any plant may be introduced into, and fixed in a locality 
where it has no special adaptation to the soil there, and the most 
common plants or varieties of plants will be most likely to 
spread in this way. Hence the mere fact that a certain species 
is very generally diffused in a certain district, does not by any 
means prove that it is better suited to the soil of that district 
than any other species, nor that it will be sure to come in if 
omitted in a mixture of grasses designed for such a locality. 

As already said, the mixture of grass seeds in imitation of 
nature for the purpose of forming good permanent fields or 
pastures, is of comparatively modern origin. It was, for a long 
time after this practice commenced, thought to require a great 
while to form a thick and good sward or turf, by any artificial 
means. The use of a large and judiciously selected number of 
species, has been found to accomplish this object most quickly. 

Though I have expressed myself with some degree of confi- 
dence on this subject, I would still refer to the importance 
of careful experiment. The outlay is small, when compared 
with the losses now sustained in over-seeding with too few 



TIME OF CUTTING. 161 

species, and from small or medium crops ; and the farmer can 
soon satisfy himself as to the profit of more attention to the 
mixtures of grasses. 

TIME TO CUT GRASS FOR HAY. 

Having carefully selected and judiciously mixed and sown 
his grass seed at a proper season, the farmer may confidently 
hope to have an abundant crop of grass the following year, 
when there will naturally arise one of the most important ques- 
tions in the economy of the farm, and that is, when to cut 
grass to make into hay, or at what stage of its growth it is most 
valuable for that purpose. This is a point on which even experi- 
enced farmers diff"er, but the weight of authority will be found 
strongly for cutting at the time of flowering. Most practical 
farmers, in answer to this question say that hay is sweeter, and 
possesses more nutriment when cut in full blossom than at any 
other stage. One of the most intelligent farmers of Middlesex 
county says : "I prefer to cut grass when in blossom, because 
it will make more milk and more fat, and cattle prefer it to 
that standing later. It keeps them loose and healthy. I have 
no doubt liay of the same bulk weighs more if it stands in the 
field till the seed forms, and for this reason some who sell most 
of their hay let it stand." A farmer of Worcester county 
says : " When designed for milch cows, store, or fattening ani- 
mals, I prefer to cut in the blossom, because it makes more 
milk, more growth and more beef. For working cattle and 
horses I cut about six days after the pollen has fallen, because 
it does not scour or loosen the animal so much as when cut in 
the blossom." A farmer of Hampshire county says : " Next to 
sweet, fresh grass, we think that rowen will make cows, work- 
ing cattle or horses thrive better than any other feed, unless in 
the case of cattle hard at work. We conclude, therefore, that 
all hay is best cut early. Coarse hay will keep stock tolerably 
well, cut early, which if allowed to mature would not be eaten 
at all." A farmer of Hampden county says : " We cut after 
the blossoms begin to fall, and before they have all fallen. It 
has more substance and weight cut at that time than if cut 
sooner, more sweetness and juice than if cut later." A farmer 
of Berkshire county says : " Our rule is to cut hay in the blos- 
som, as it is then in the best state for feeding, less woody and 

21 



162 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

much sweeter than later, and leaves the roots in better state for 
a second, or another annual crop." Another very intelligent, 
practical farmer says : " We cut in blossom, because it is then 
most palatable to stock. If allowed to stand much longer there 
is a draft upon the soil for the growth of the seed, which is not 
repaid by the additional value of the hay, if, indeed, it is 
increased in value at all. My opinion, derived from my own 
experience, is, that the grasses will sooner die out if allowed to 
stand later." A farmer who prefers to cut all other grasses 
when in blossom, says : " It will not do to cut blue joint or 
fowl meadow till some of the seeds fall, as it will soon run them 
out." An intelligent farmer of Norfolk county says : " When 
English grass is in full blossom it has all the good qualities it 
can have. From that time I think it loses in value in propor- 
tion to the time which it stands. Swale hay should be cut 
rather green. If fully ripe it is hard and dry." Another says: 
" We cut about the time the blossom falls. The grass is then 
at its full growth. If it stands much longer the leaves begin 
to die at the bottom and the grass grows tough and hard, and 
I think the longer it stands the less it will weigh when dried. If 
it is cut much earlier it will shrink and dry up and does not seem 
to have so much nutriment in it, and I have noticed cattle will 
eat more in bulk than when cut at the right time." Another 
says : " The time of cutting depends very much upon the use 
you wish to make of it. If for working oxen aiid horses, I 
would let it stand till a little out of the blossom, but if to feed 
out to new milch cows in the winter, I would prefer to cut it 
very green. It is then worth for the making of milk in the 
winter, almost double that cut later." One other extract will 
suffice. A farmer of Middlesex county says : " I cut my red 
clover before the heads begin to turn brown. When the clover 
js quite heavy I cut it when only one-half the heads have blos- 
somed, because then cattle will eat all the stems. Clover is 
injured more by half when it stands long after blossoming than 
any other kind. I find my clover hay in the barn much heavier 
when cut quite early." 

These extracts, taken at random from a large number of let- 
ters from practical farmers all over the Slate, indicate very 
cle'arly the prevailing practice. The replies from about one 
Jiuudred and fifty towns are, that farmers prefer to cut the 



TIME OF CUTTING. 163 

principal grasses, Timothy and redtop, when in full blossom ; 
red clover when about half the heads are in blossom, and swale 
grass before it is ripe, and generally before blossoming, if possi- 
ble, so as to prevent it from becoming hard and wiry. 

This practice is unquestionably founded on a correct princi- 
ple, the object of the farmer being to secure his hay so as to 
make it most like grass in its perfect condition. From princi- 
ples stated in another place, it has been seen that the nutritive 
substances of grass are those, which are, for the most part, 
soluble in water, such as sugar, gluten, and other compounds. 
Now it is evident that if this is so, the grass should be cut at 
the time when it contains the largest amount of these princi- 
ples. In its early stages of growth it contains a very large 
percentage of water. From its earliest growth the sugar and 
other soluble substances gradually increase till they reach their 
maximum percentage in the blossom, or when the seed is fully 
formed in the cell. From this period the saccharine matter 
constantly diminishes, and the woody fibre, perfectly insoluble 
in water, and innutritions, increases till after the seeds have 
matured, when the plant begins to decay. Of course, if the 
plant is not cut in the flower, a great part of the nutriment of 
its stems and leaves is wasted. 

There are some exceptions to this rule in the natural grasses, 
as already seen in considering their nutritive qualities, and m 
the analyses at different periods of their growth. Thus, in 
case of the orchard grass, Sinclair found the nutritive matter 
at the time the seed was ripe and at the time of flowering, as 
seven to five, and the stems of Timothy were found to contain 
more nutritive matter when the plant was ripe, than at the time 
of flowering, though it was found that the loss of aftermath 
which would have formed had the plant been cut in blos- 
som, more than balanced the gain of nutritive matter in the 
ripening of the seed. Most of the grasses, too, make a greater 
quantity of hay when cut at the time of blossoming, though 
the crested dog's tail has been found to be an exception to this 
rule. Fowl meadow, also, contains an equal quantity of pro- 
duce at the time of ripening the seed and at the time of blos- 
soming, and the nutritive matter at both periods is about the 
same. It will be found in practice generally to be better to be a 
little too early than too late, for the gain is in two directions, in 



164 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

a greater nutritive substance at the time of blossoming, which 
is certainly a sufficient consideration of itself, and in the larger 
growth of the lattermath which will spring up on good land and 
in a good season. 

We might also reason from analogy in other plants, for it is 
a well known fact that the best vegetable extracts for medicinal 
and other purposes, are procured from plants when in blossom. 
Prof. Kirtland, of Ohio, states that an observing, practical 
farmer of his neighborhood, after many careful observations on 
the growth of Timothy, has arrived at these propositions : — 

1. That Timothy grass is a perennial plant, which renews itself 
by an annual formation of " bulbs," or perhaps, more correctly 
speaking, tubers, in which the vitality of the plant is concen- 
trated during the winter. These form in whatever locality the 
plant is selected, without reference to dryness or moisture. 
From these proceed the stalks which support the leaves and 
head, and from the same source spread out the numerous fibres 
forming the true roots. 

2. To insure a perfect development of tubers, a certain 
amount of nutrition must be assimilated in the leaves, and 
returned to the base of the plant, through the stalk. 

3. As soon as the process of nutrition is completed, it 
becomes manifest by the appearance of a state of desiccation, 
or dryness, always commencing at a point directly above either 
the first or second joint of the stem near the crown of the 
tuber. From this point the desiccation gradually progresses 
upwards, and the last portion of the stalk that yields up its 
freshness is that adjoining the head. Coincident with the be- 
ginning of this process, is the full development of the seeds, and 
with its progress they mature. Its earliest appearance is evi- 
dence that both the tubers and seeds have received their requi- 
site supplies of nutrition, and that neither the stalk nor the 
leaves are longer necessary to aid them in completing their 
maturity. A similar process occurs in the union just above 
the crown of the bulb, indicating the maturity of that organ. 
Fig. 97 represents the bulb fully developed and mature, from 
which the stalk was cut, after the nutritive process was com- 
pleted, above the point where drying or desiccation had begun. 

4. If the stalk be cut from the tubers before this evidence of 
maturity has appeared, the necessary supplies of nutrition will 



TIME OF CUTTING. 



165 



be arrested, their proper growth will cease, and an effort will 
be made to repair the injury by sending out small, lateral 
tubers, from which weak and unhealthy stalks will proceed, at 
the expense of the original tubers. This is seen in Fig. 98. 
All will ultimately perish either by the droughts of autumn or 
the cold of winter. 




'Ml 




Fig. 97. 

5. The tubers, together with one or two of the lower joints 
of the stalk, remain fresh and green during the winter, if left to 
take their natural course, but if, by any means, this green portion 
be severed, at any season of the year, the result will be the 
death of the plant, when it will appear as in Fig. 99. 



166 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

From these five propositions the following conclusions are 
drawn : — 

1. That Timothy grass cannot, under any circumstances, be 
adapted for pasture ; as the close nipping of horses and sheep 
is fatal to the tubers whicli are also extensively destroyed by 
swine if allowed to run in the pasture. 

2. That the proper time for mowing Timothy is at any time 
after the process of desiccation has commenced on the stalk, as 
noted in the third proposition. It is not very essential whether 
it is performed a week earlier or later, provided it be postponed 
till that evidence of maturity has become manifest. 

3. All attempts at close shaving the sward should be avoided, 
while using the scythe, and in gauging mowing machines, care 
should be taken to run them so high that they will not cut the 
Timothy below the second joint above the tuber. 

I have frequently, during the past autumn, pulled up the 
bulbous roots of Timothy, from the stubble from which a heavy 
crop had been cut with the scythe, while in flower, for the pur- 
pose of studying the changes which were taking place in tliese 
tubers, and have found them very similar to those represented 
in Figs. 97 and 98, not only on moist, damjj*soils, but also on 
soils comparatively dry. Any farmer can satisfy himself of the 
correctness of these representations by a little observation in 
his own fields ; and as the point is of practical importance, it is 
worthy of careful attention. 

The facts above alluded to have fallen under the observation 
of a practical farmer of Middlesex county, who says : " The 
proper time to cut Herds-grass or Timothy, is after the seed is 
formed and is full in the milk. It will then give about twenty 
per cent, more weight than when it is just coming into the 
blossom, and the cattle will eat twenty per cent, less and keep 
on their flesh. And I prefer also to cut it at that stage of its 
growth on account of the roots being better able to withstand 
the drought. It should be cut four inches from the ground, as 
most of the Timothy is killed by mowhig close and early 
before it has come to maturity. I have kept Timothy thick 
and strong in the land six years, by following this method. I 
have noticed that most of it has died out by once or twice close 
and early mowing before the grass has come to maturity ; if it 
is dry weather it is sure to die when so cut. I lost a whole 



MODES OF CUTTING. 167 

field of it by mowing too close and early, and I consider the 
four inches at the bottom of coarse Timothy of little value." 

If the seed is allowed to ripen it exhausts the soil far more 
tlian if cut in the blossom. 

MOWING MACHINES. 

We now come to the methods of cutting grass. As this crop 
is one of the most important and valuable in the whole range 
of farming products, any practicable means offered to facilitate 
its harvesting in the best manner, and at the least expense, will 
naturally excite the interest of the progressive farmer. The 
ordinary method of cutting by the hand scythe is already too 
familiar to every one in New England to need a moment's 
notice in this connection, and I propose only to allude to a com- 
paratively new method of mowing by horse or ox power, and 
chiefly to the success which has attended the use of macbinery 
during the past season as indicated in the returns to the circu- 
lar already given, and in reply to the second question, " Have 
you used a mowing machine, if so, what patent, witli^what 
power, and with what advantage ?" 

The inducements held out by the Massachusetts Society for the 
Promotion of Agriculture, by an offer of a premium of $1300, in 
the year 1855, to the one who should make the most successful 
experiments in cutting grass by machinery, and of |1,000, to 
be awarded in 1856, to the inventor or manufacturer of the best 
mowing machine, very naturally led our farmers to hesitate in 
procuring machines till the results of these trials were known. 
The number of affirmative answers to the above question was, 
notwithstanding, very considerable, and generally wherever 
used, the testimony is strongly in favor of the use of machinery. 

In speaking on this subject I shall state simply the facts 
which have been returned to me by practical farmers, without 
expressing any personal preferences for any particular patent. 
By so doing, I shall give the farmer who designs to purchase a 
machine the means of forming his own judgment without the 
necessity of any bias from mine. I will simply state that my 
observation of these machines and their work has been exten- 
sive during the two past seasons, and that the improvements 



168 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

during that time have been very great in nearly all the patents 
which have fallen under my notice. 

A practical and experienced farmei of Hampden county, 
in answer to the circular says : " I use Manny's Patent 
Mower, manufactured in Worcester, by J. P. Adriance & Co., 
and have cut more than one hundred acres in the two last 
seasons, without breaking a tooth or the point of a knife. The 
whole expense of repairs has not exceeded three dollars, and it is 
now in fine order for years to come. The power is the same as 
common ploughing. If the horses are permitted to stop but a 
short time, and that often, in hot weather, as when ploughing, 
I would as soon let my horses mow a day as plough." 

A farmer of Worcester county says : " I have used Ketchum's 
and Manny's mowing machines. I prefer Manny's to Ketchum's. 
It draws much easier, and is easier to manage. I worked them 
both with the same horses. My mowing lots are small. Farmers 
with large lots can use the machine to greater advantage than 
I can, but on my small lots it saves nearly two-thirds the cost 
of mowing, and all the cost of spreading." Another in the 
same«county says : " In July, 1854, I used Ketchum's Patent 
Mower, with which, after many failures and repeated discourage- 
ments, I succeeded in cutting the crop of grass, and made con- 
siderable saving in the cost of getting the crop, but was of the 
opinion that great improvements were necessary. In 1855 I 
used the same patent altered, but not improved, by an iron 
frame and cutter bar. The present, season I have used the 
Manny patent, manufactured in Worcester, and can say that it 
is a labor-saving machine for the farmer. The Manny is far 
superior to the Ketchum, for lightness of draught and the slow- 
ness of speed required in iineven places ; the lever by which the 
cutter bar is raised or lowered at pleasure, — the perfect arrange- 
ment of the knives that could not be clogged or stopped in 
more than fifty acres, — the convenience of transporting it on its 
own wheels from one lot to another, and last, not least, com- 
bining, as it does, the reaper, renders it one of the most perfect 
machines that has come under my notice. In regard to the 
profit of mowing by machinery, it has cost to secure the hay on 
this place, on an average, about |100 a year for extra labor. 
This year but |34, allowing nothing for the labor of horses." 

A practical farmer of Berkshire county says : " I have used 



MODES OF CUTTING. 



169 



Manny's combined machine for the two past seasons, having cut 
all my hay and grain with two horses. The first great advan- 
tage is that I cut my hay on the day it is^^ for cutting ; second, 
I get more hay, as it is all cut up alike — no pointing out to be 
seen when the snow is a foot deep — and third, it don't make a 




public house of my home during haying and harvesting, for 
day laborers. The common farm hands with a Manny machine 
will do the haying with all ease, and at half the expense." An- 
other in Franklin county says : " I have used Ketchum's patent 
with two horses, for three seasons. Think I save from the 

22 



170 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

expense of mowing and spreading by hand, together with the 
advantage derived from being able to cut all I wish to after the 
dew is off, one dollar per ton." An experienced farmer of 
Norfolk county says : " I have used Allen's patent, moved by 
liorse-power, with great advantage. Horses move slowly, as in 
ploughing — are less fatigued than by ploughing all day. I have 
mowed twelve acres per day, and can mow easily and smoothly 
any grass, even heavy and lodged clover, and on any surface 
where a scythe can be used. I regard it as of great use, saving 
much time and hard labor. It cuts clean and smooth, spreads 
the grass evenly, and requires only the labor of one man in the 
largest field, until the grass needs to be turned or raked up." 
Another in Hampshire county says : " We have used a mowing 
machine for the four last seasons, of Ketchum's patent. There 
are ten others of the same patent, and three of other kinds in town, 
all of which are in active use. They are all worked with horses, 
two on each. As to the advantage gained by the use of the 
mowing machine, I hardly know what to say or how to reckon 
it. There are a number of points to be considered, some of 
which would be called an advantage by some, which with others 
might not be so considered. But, the gain in cutting the grass 
must be apparent to all who have land smooth enough to work 
a machine on ; and in this connection it may be best to speak 
of the horse-rake with the mower, as one naturally follows the 
other. Our way of getting hay when the weather is good, is 
this : To cut and rake it into the windrow the first day. The 
next, open and turn it, if necessary, then rake it and cart it. 

Now one man with a machine and horses, in the forenoon, 
and one horse and rake three hours after dinner, can put five or 
six acres of grass into the windrow every day if he chooses, 
which is as much as ordinary farmers in this vicinity wish to 
do, as our hay has to be carted from one to two miles, and that 
takes time. How many men will it take to do the same work ? 
Any one can answer this to his own satisfaction, and as labor 
differs in price in almost every section of the State, the actual 
cost would vary somewhat. But here it would take from five 
to ten men to do the same work, varying as the burden of grass 
does per acre ; for in lodged grass ten would hardly do. 

"Then the advantage of having it done in good weather and 
cutting the grass when he chooses, whether in blossom or after 



MODES OF CUTTING. 



171 



it is fully ripe ; I think this can be safely put down at ten per 
cent., and some call it as high as twenty per cent." A farmer 
in another town in the same county says : " Have not used any. 
There are a number of machines in the town. Allen's patent 
has done the best work this season. Ketchum's improved 
machine does pretty well. I think they are coming into use 
more and more." 




The following extract is from the statement of Dr. Loring, 
made to the Essex Society during the past season. 

" The ground upon which my machine (Ketchum's) was 
operated, furnished a very severe test of its power. Most part 
of it is clayey, heavy soil, very wet in wet seasons and stiff and 
rough in dry ones. No special care has been taken in laying it 



172 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

down. And I am confident that no machine but the strongest, 
could endure the wear and tear to which it is subjected on such 
a surface. 

" No difficulty has been experienced in the varieties of grass 
which I have cut. The heaviest and the lightest have fallen 
equally well, and no trouble has been met in turning the corn- 
ers or in driving the machine so as to avoid clogging. 

" The experience of this season has convinced me that on 
ordinary, rough New England farms, the Ketchum machine 
works almost to perfection. I do not mean to say it has no 
equal, for I have not experience to warrant such a statement. 
But in all varieties of work, light grass and heavy, lodged 
clover and upright Timothy, rough land and smooth, I find that I 
can rely on its operations, without particular effort to secure for 
it any advantages. Its draught is no trouble to such horses as 
a farmer ought to own. And it does its work without any extra 
and ingenious appliances. 

" Of the economy of mowing machines, it seems to me there 
can be no question. I have found that the machine operated 
on the Pickman farm would cut grass enough in four or five 
hours in the morning to keep the laborers busy during the day, 
and as much as could be cured and got in with ease. The two 
seasons during which I have witnessed the working of the 
machine, I have made it, in my mind, an absolute necessity, in 
all economical management of the farm, to which purpose 
alone I have had it applied." 

But the great trial in this State the past year, was in compe- 
tition for the premium of $1,000 already alluded to, for the best 
mowing machine. Three farmers of well known good judg- 
ment were appointed to act as a committee. They gave all the 
machines entered a very thorough and careful examination, 
saw the work of each, and made a report which has been re- 
turned to me in manuscript, and will shortly be published in 
full. In this report, after speaking of several machines, which, 
after a preliminary examination or trial, were ruled out for 
palpable defects, they say : — 

The four other machines were tried upon another lot of grass, on 
patches of equal dimensions, each in succession, both when the grass 
was wet and dry. This was a heavy crop of clover, Timothy and 



MODES (f^ CUTTING. 173 

redtop mixed, some of which was lodged. Portions of the lot were 
rolling, and the surface generally quite as far from level as our ordi- 
nary grass fields, so that upon the whole, it was an excellent lot to 
test the machines. 

They were also tried on a meadow bottom which had never been 
ploughed, where various wild grasses, both coarse and fine, were 
intermixed. 

The trial, you will thus perceive, was a thorough one, and by it we 
were able to form a satisfactory judgment of the merits of the differ- 
ent machines. The remaining machines, and between which we were 
to judge, were patented or known as Ketchum's, Manny's, Heath's 
and the Allen machine, entered by E.. L. Allen. The owners of the 
Ketchum machine allege that Mr. Allen has infringed upon their, 
patent, and has no right to build or sell his machine except within 
the limits prescribed in a license procured from them, and that Massa- 
chusetts is not within those limits. However that may be, is of no 
consequence so f;ir as our report is concerned, for we did not regard 
the consideration of that question as within our province, and it there- 
fore had no weight with us. The Ketchum machine, entered by 
Nourse, Mason & Co., has probably been in use longer in this State 
and is more generally known than either pf the others. The one which 
they entered for premium differs from those which have been built by 
them in years past, in having a driving wheel of comparatively small 
size, wrought iron substituted for castings wherever it was deemed 
practicable, and every thing about the machine so made as to reduce 
weight. In this they have succeeded, their machine with pole and 
whifiletrees attached weighing only about 460 pounds. The price of 
the machine has also been reduced from $100 or upwards, to $75. 
We think that in this, they have made no mistake, but that the reduc- 
tion in weight is a great mistake. The difference in the amount of 
draft required to operate a machine of 400 pounds weight and another 
of 700 pounds weight, other things being equal, would probably be 
almost imperceptible, except by very accurate dynamical tests ; and 
may it not be that the difference would then be found to be in favor 
of the heavier machine ? Without entering into any speculation upon 
the matter, we think that it was a fact apparent to every careful 
observer that this light Ketchum machine actually required more 
power of draft when in operation than either of the four, and that the 
one which required the least power of draft was almost twice as 
heavy. So light, indeed, was it, that with the weight of the driver 
superadded, and driven at a rate of speed sufficient to cut the grass 
well, — which, by the way, is a little higher than that required by the 



174 



GRASSES AND FcfetAGE PLANTS. 



other machines, — inequalities in the surface, even slight ones, caused 
it to bound in such a manner as to throw up the extreme end of the 
finger bar several inches above its true cutting level, leaving the 
stubble uneven and wavy. 




Allen's machine required less power of draft than the Ketchum 
machine. Its weight -with pole and whiiRetrees is about 600 pounds. 
No machine that we have seen is so readily thrown in and out of gear 
as is this. It has a wooden instead of an iron finger bar. In our 
opinion an iron finger bar is preferable. The weather cannot affect it 
as of necessity it must a wooden one, and the grass which falls upon 
it leaves it a little more readily. Outside of the driving wheel is a 



MODES OF CUTTING. 175 

light wheel which runs on a spring axle, and is claimed to be advan- 
tageous in turning and in working the machine on a side hill. 

The Manny machine also requires less power of draft than did the 
Ketchum machine. In this respect, the diflference between it and the 
Allen machine was almost imperceptible. It has a wheel at the end 
of the knife bar, which greatly assists in turning and backing, and 
makes it much more comfortable to transport from one field to another. 
We think that, other things being equal, a machine with a wheel at 
the end of the finger bar, has an advantage over a machine Avithout it. 
Although very difierent in construction, we regard the Allen and the 
Manny machines as very nearly alike in point of merit, and if it had 
so happened that it was necessary for us to decide between those two 
machines, our judgment would have been made up cautiously and 
with much hesitation, for each has points of excellence which the 
other does not possess. Both these machines did their work gen- 
erally well, but not so well as the work done by the Heath machine. 

This, like the Manny machine, has a wheel at the end of the finger 
bar. Like that, too, it has a reel which may or may not be used, as 
circumstances require. But its cutting arrangement differs entirely 
from either of the other machines. They each have a single knife 
with the blades riveted to the plate and operating through cast iron 
fingers or guards, which, especially when the knife is dull, may be 
liable to get filled up and thus clog the blades. Instead of these, 
this machine has virtually a double set of cutters, the under set being, 
stationary, projecting an inch beyond the upper, and thereby acting 
in the double capacity of guard and cutter. These, as well as the 
upper blades are each independent of the other, and each attached to 
its bar by a screw bolt. The upper set of blades is held down by a 
spring pressure bar, so that the operation is similar to that of shears, 
the grass being cut between two sharp edges, and the machine work- 
ing nearly as well at one rate of speed as another. In ease of acci- 
dent, therefore, a blade can be removed by any body and another sub- 
stituted in an instant of time. Both the upper and lower cutters are 
made like the best edge tools in use, of the best cast steel with wrought 
iron backs. The iron furnishing strength, the steel can be made as 
hard as desirable without so much danger of breaking by use, and 
being made hard do not require to be so often ground. The lower 
cutter or guard, as yoii may please to call it, is half an inch thick and 
one and one- fourth inches wide. The upper blades are about twice 
as thick as those used on any other machine. This machine very 
evidently required less power of draft than either of the others, and 
did its work the best. The Manny machine weighed about 600 



176 



GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 



pounds. Th,s wghed about 800 pounds. I„ it, cutting apparatus 
which .perhaps the most important feature of a mowi„Vmaeh ne 
we regard .t as very much superior to either of the others. 'in is eaje 
of draft, perhaps the next most important feature, ,ve regard it 




■■•'"'vA',',/'/ III'' ' 



superior. We regard it also as less liable to doer fl„„ 

«th Angers or guard. like those of Ketchurl \ lyaLTur 

lusher .mportaut features it is equal to the other machfnes 

We therefore unhesitatingly, confidently and unanimously express 



MODES OF CUTTING. 



169 



Manny's combined machine for the two past seasons, having cut 
all my hay and grain with two horses. The first great advan- 
tage is that I cut my hay on the day it is, fit for cutting ; second, 
I get more hay, as it is all cut up alike — no pointing out to be 
seen when the snow is a foot deep — and third, it don't make a 




public house of my home during haying and liarvesting, for 
day laborers. The common farm hands with a Manny machine 
will do the haying with all ease, and at half the expense." An- 
other in Franklin county says : " I have used Ketchum's patent 
with two horses, for three seasons. Think I save from the 

22 



170 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

expense of mowing and spreading by hand, together with the 
advantage derived from being able to cut all I wish to after the 
dew is off, one dollar per ton." An experienced farmer of 
Norfolk county , says : " I have used Allen's patent, moved by 
horse-power, with great advantage. Horses move slowly, as in 
ploughing — are less fatigued than by ploughing all day. I have 
mowed twelve acres per day, and can mow easily and smoothly 
any grass, even heavy and lodged clover, and on any surface 
where a scythe can be used. I regard it as of great use, saving 
much time and hard labor. It cuts clean and smooth, spreads 
the grass evenly, and requires only the labor of one man in the 
largest field, until the grass needs to be turned or raked up." 
Another in Hampshire county says ; " We have used a mowing 
machine for the four last seasons, of Ketchum's patent. There 
are ten others of the same patent, and three of other kinds in town, 
all of which are in active use. They are all worked with horses, 
two on each. As to the advantage gained by the use of the 
mowing machine, I hardly know what to say or how to reckon 
it. There are a number of points to be considered, some of 
which would be called an advantage by some, which with others 
might not be so considered. But, the gain in cutting the grass 
must be apparent to all who have land smooth enough to work 
a machine on ; and in this connection it may be best to speak 
of the horse-rake with the mower, as one naturally follows the 
other. Our way of getting hay when the weather is good, is 
this : To cut and rake it into the windrow the first day. The 
next, open and turn it, if necessary, then rake it and cart it. 

Now one man with a machine and horses, in the forenoon, 
and one horse and rake three hours after dinner, can put five or 
six acres of grass into the windrow every day if he chooses, 
which is as much as ordinary farmers in this vicinity wish to 
do, as our hay has to be carted from one to two miles, and that 
takes time. How many men will it take to do the same work ? 
Any one can answer this to his own satisfaction, and as labor 
differs in price in almost every section of the State, the actual 
cost would vary somewhat. But here it would take from five 
to ten men to do the same work, varying as the burden of grass 
does per acre ; for in lodged grass ten would hardly do. 

" Then the advantage of having it done in good weather and 
cutting the grass when he chooses, whether in blossom or after 



MODES OF CUTTING. 



171 



it is fully ripe ; I think this can be safely put down at ten per 
cent., and some call it as high as twenty per cent." A farmer 
in another town in the same county says : " Have not used any. 
There arc a number of machines in the town. Allen's patent 
has done the best work this season. Ketchum's improved 
machine does pretty well. I think they are coming into use 
more and more." 




Tlie following extract is from the statement of Dr. Loring, 
made to the Essex Society during the past season. 

" The ground upon which my machine (Ketchum's) was 
operated, furnished a very severe test of its power. Most part 
of it is clayey, heavy soil, very wet in wet seasons and stiff and 
rough in dry ones. No special care has been taken in laying it 



172 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

down. And I am confident that no machine but the strongest, 
could endure the wear and tear to which it is subjected on such 
a surface. 

" No difficulty has been experienced in the varieties of grass 
which I have cut. The heaviest and the , lightest have fallen 
equally well, and no trouble has been met in turning the corn- 
ers or in driving the machine so as to avoid clogging. 

" The experience of this season has convinced me that on 
ordinary, rough New England farms, the Ketchum machine 
works almost to perfection. I do not mean to say it has no 
equal, for I have not experience to warrant such a statement. 
But in all varieties of work, light grass and heavy, lodged 
clover and upright Timothy, rough land and smooth, I find that I 
can rely on its operations, without particular effort to secure for 
it any advantages. Its draught is no trouble to such horseg as 
a farmer ought to own. And it does its work without any extra 
and ingenious appliances. 

" Of the economy of mowing machines, it seems to me there 
can be no question. I have found that the machine operated 
on the Pickman farm would cut grass enough in four or five 
hours in the morning to keep the laborers busy during the day, 
and as much as could be cured and got in with ease. The two 
seasons during which I have witnessed the working of the 
machine, I have made it, in my mind, an absolute necessity, in 
all economical management of the farm, to which purpose 
alone I have had it applied." 

But the great trial in this State the past year, was in compe- 
tition for the premium of 11,000 already alluded to, for the best 
mowing machine. Three farmers of well known good judg- 
ment were appointed to act as a committee. They gave all the 
machines entered a very thorough and careful examination, 
saw the work of each, and made a report which has been re- 
turned to me in manuscript, and will shortly be published in 
full. In this report, after speaking of several macliines, which, 
after a preliminary examination or trial, were ruled out for 
palpable defects, they say : — 

The four other machines were tried upon another lot of grass, on 
patches of equal dimensions, each in succession, both when the grass 
was wet and dry. This was a heavy crop of clover, Timothy and 



MODES OF CUTTING. 173 

redtop mixed, some of Avhicli was lodged. Portions of the lot were 
rolling, and the surface generally quite as far from level as our ordi- 
nary grass fields, so that upon the Avhole, it was an excellent lot to 
test the machines. 

They were also tried on a meadow bottom which had never been 
ploughed, where various wild grasses, both coarse and fine, were 
intermixed. 

The trial, you will thus perceive, was a thorough one, and by it we 
were able to form a satisfactory judgment of the merits of the differ- 
ent machines. The remaining machines, and between which we were 
to judge, were patented or known as Ketchum's, Manny's, Heath's 
and the Allen machine, entered by R.. L. Allen. The owners of the 
Ketchum machine allege that Mr. Allen has infringed upon their 
patent, and has no right to build or sell his machine except within 
the limits prescribed in a license procured from them, and that Massa- 
chusetts is not within those limits. However that may be, is of no 
consequence so far as our report is concerned, for we did not regard 
the consideration of that question as within our province, and it there- 
fore had no weight with us. The Ketchum machine, entered by 
Nourse, Mason & Co., has probably been in use longer in this State 
and is more generally known than either of the others. The one which 
they entered for premium differs from those which have been built by 
them in years past, in having a driving Avheel of comparatively small 
size, wrought iron substituted for castings wherever it was deemed 
practicable, and every thing about the machine so made as to reduce 
weight. In this they have succeeded, their machine with pole and 
whiffletrees attached weighing only about 460 pounds. The price of 
the machine has also been reduced from $100 or upwards, to $75. 
"We think that in this, they have made no mistake, but that the reduc- 
tion in weight is a great mistake. The difference in the amount of 
draft required to operate a machine of 400 pounds weight and another 
of 700 pounds weight, other things being equal, would probably be 
almost imperceptible, except by very accurate dynamical tests ; and 
may it not be that the difference would then be found to be in favor 
of the heavier machine ? Without entering into any speculation upon 
the matter, we think that it was a fact apparent to every careful 
observer that this light Ketchum machine actually required more 
power of draft when in operation than either of the four, and that the 
one which required the least power of draft was almost twice as 
heavy. So light, indeed, was it, that with the weight of the driver 
superadded, and driven at a rate of speed sufficient to cut the grass 
well, — which, by the way, is a little higher than that required by the 



174 



GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 



other machines, — inequalities in the surface, even slight ones, caused 
it to bound in such a manner as to throw up the extreme end of the 
finger bar several inches above its true cutting level, leaving the 
stubble uneven and wavy. 




Allen's machine required less power of draft than the Ketchum 
machine. Its weight with pole and whiffletrees is about 600 pounds. 
No machine that we have seen is so readily thrown in and out of gear 
as is this. It has a wooden instead of an iron finger bar. In our 
opinion an iron finger bar is preferable. The weather cannot afi"ect it 
as of necessity it must a wooden one, and the grass which falls upon 
it leaves it a little more readily. Outside of the driving wheel is a 



MODES OF CUTTING. 1T5 

light wheel which runs on a spring axle, and is claimed to be advan- 
tageous in turning and in Avorking the machine on a side hill. 

The Manny machine also requires less poM-er of draft than did the 
Ketchum machine. In this respect, the difference between it and the 
Allen machine was almost imperceptible. It has a wheel at the end 
of the knife bar, which greatly assists in turning and backing, and 
makes it much more comfortable to transport from one field to another. 
We think that, other things being equal, a machine with a wheel at 
the end of the finger bar, has an advantage over a machine without it. 
Although very difierent in construction, we regard the Allen and the 
Manny machines as very nearly alike in point of merit, and if it had 
so happened that it was necessary for us to decide between those two 
machines, our judgment would have been made up cautiously and 
with much hesitation, for each has points of excellence which the 
other does not possess. Both these machines did their work gen- 
erally well, but not so well as the work done by the Heath machine. 
This, like the Manny machine, has a wheel at the end of the finger 
bar. Like that, too, it has a reel which may or may not be used, as 
circumstances require. But its cutting arrangement differs entirely 
from either of the other machines. They each have a single knife 
with the blades riveted to the plate and operating through cast iron 
fingers or guards, which, especially when the knife is dull, may be 
liable to get filled up and thus clog the blades. Instead of these, 
this machine has virtually a double set of cutters, the under set being 
stationary, projecting an inch beyond the upper, and thereby acting 
in the double capacity of guard and cutter. These, as well as the 
upper blades are each independent of the other, and each attached to 
its bar by a screw bolt. The upper set of blades is held down by a 
spring pressure bar, so that the operation is similar to that of shears, 
the grass being cut between two sharp edges, and the machine work- 
ing nearly as well at one rate of speed as another. In case of acci- 
dent, therefore, a blade can be removed by any body and another sub- 
stituted in an instant of time. Both the upper and lower cutters are 
made like the best edge tools in use, of the best cast steel with wrought 
iron backs. The iron furnishing strength, the steel can be made as 
hard as desirable without so much danger of breaking by use, and 
being made hard do not require to be so often ground. The lower 
cutter or guard, as you may please to call it, is half an inch thick and 
one and one-fourth inches wide. The upper blades are about twice 
as thick as those used on any other machine. This machine very 
evidently required less power of draft than either of the others, and 
did its work the best. The Manny machine weighed about 600 



176 



GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 



pounds. This weighed about 800 pounds. In its cutting apparatus, 
which is perhaps the most important feature of a mowing machine, 
we regard it as very much superior to either of the others. In its ease 
of draft, perhaps the next most important feature, we regard it as 




superior. We regard it also as less liable to clog than any machine 
with fingers or guards, like those of Ketchum, Manny and Allen. 
In other important features it is equal to the other machines. 

We therefore unhesitatingly, confidently and unanimously express 



METHODS OF CURING. 185 

make cows give more and better milk and butter, will put more 
fat on animals for the slaughter, with four quarts of meal per 
day, than eight quarts of meal with hay well secured from the 
first of July to the first of August. That w^ill give the second 
crop, if you wish, time to grow, and it may be cut tlie last 
week in August or the first week in September; there will then 
be a crop of fall feed, which most farmers prize very highly. 
If you do not wish a second crop, the feed by early mowing is 
very valuable. On the other hand, if the grass is cut late, the 
hay is not only poor but the feed is mere nothing. Every 
farmer of my acquaintance admits that the hay cut early is far 
superior to that cut late, unless it be those that are in tke habit 
of selling hay ; even that class must lose in the weight of their 
crop by late cutting. Many buyers have not yet learned the 
difference between early and late cut hay, when the real differ- 
ence is, oftentimes, from four to six dollars per ton. Working 
horses and oxen will keep in better condition with half the 
grain when fed upon early cut hay ; will look sleek and their 
eyes will be bright." 

A farmer of Hampshire county says : " My method is to cut 
with the mowing machine, which leaves the grass perfectly 
spread. It is turned over between one and two o'clock in the 
afternoon, and while still warm and before the evening dew 
falls it is put into cocks. It is spread and turned the next 
morning, and at one o'clock is ready for the barn. I cannot 
tell on paper, the precise point of dryness at which hay should 
be housed, but with my hands, eyes and nose, I can judge when 
it is dry enough not to hurt in the mow, and not so dry as to 
crumble or to have lost any more of its virtues than necessary. 
The less drying the better, if it does not injure in the mow." 
Another practical farmer says : " I prefer two days, but want to 
have it lay thick together and stirred often the first day and but 
little the second. In this way the hay retains more of the 
juices, smells sweeter, looks greener and the cattle like it much 
better. Hay should be cured so that it will not heat in the 
mow and no more." Another says : " Hay may generally be 
dried enough in one good hay day with proper care, to be left 
over night in the cock and carried to the barn the next after- 
noon without spreading. Hay may be dried too much as well 
as too little." " Timothy and redtop," says a farmer of Berk- 

24 



186 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

sliire county, " carefully spread as soon as the ground between 
the swaths is dry, and, if heavy, turned about noon, will dry 
sufficiently in one day, if si clear one, to be put into the barn 
before sunset. I believe many dry their hay too much. Never 
dry it so as to make it brittle when twisted in the hand." 

These, and many other extracts of a similar import which 
might be given, did space permit, indicate with sufficient dis- 
tinctness the prevailing practice among the best farmers, but as 
constantly intimated, it is very common to find hay dried far 
too much. Every farmer is aware of the importance of keep- 
ing his grass and hay as free from dew and water as possible. 
An exposure to rain washes out much of the soluble constitu- 
ents of the grass, leaving a useless, brittle, woody fibre. Grass 
and hay are greatly injured by remaining too long under a hot 
sun without being turned. A somewhat different method is 
adopted for 

Clover. — The natural grasses when cut for hay are generally 
spread and dried as rapidly as possible, in order to secure them 
in the best manner. Experience has proved that the same 
method is not applicable to the clover crops. It requires a 
longer time to cure it properly, and if exposed to the scprching 
sun it is injured even more than the natural grasses, since 
its succulent leaves and tender blossoms are quickly browned 
and lose their sweetness in a measure, and are themselves 
liable to be wasted in handling over. Most good farmers, 
therefore, prefer to cure it in the cock. A practical farmer of 
long experience in Worcester county says : " I prefer to mow 
clover when it is dry, free from dew ; let it wilt, and the same 
day it is mown fork it into cocks which will weigh from forty 
to fifty weight when fit for the barn. Do not rake and roll it, 
that process will compress it too much. 

" According to the weather and my convenience I let it stand 
— it will settle and turn the rain very well, and will answer to 
put into the mow while the heads and stalks are yet green and 
fresh. When fit to cart, the stalks although green, will be 
found to be destitute, or nearly so, of sap — the sap has candied 
and the clover will keep. On the day of carting turn the cocks 
over, expose the bottom to the sun an hour or so, and to a ton 
of hay add four to six quarts of salt in the mow. 

" Good clover — not rank — cured in this way, I consider to 



METHODS OF CURING. 187 

be worth nearly or quite as much as clear Timothy, to feed to 
a stock of cattle ; and for milch cows, I consider it to be by far 
preferable to Timothy. Good clover hay will keep up the 
quantity of milk, while Timothy will diminish it." 

Another practical farmer of the same county, in one of the 
best farming towns in the State, says : " My method of curing 
clover is this : what is mown in the morning I leave in the 
swath, to be turned over early in the afternoon. At about four 
o'clock, or while it is still warm, I put it into small cocks with 
a fork, and if the weather is favorable it may be housed on the 
fourth or fifth day, the cocks being turned over on the morning 
of the day it is to be carted. By so doing, all the heads and 
leaves are saved, and these are worth more than the stems. 
This has been my method for the last ten years. For new 
milch cows in the winter, I think there is nothing better. It 
will make them give as great a flow of milk as any hay, unless 
it be good rowen. For working oxen and horses its value is 
about one-quarter less than Timothy." 

A practical farmer of Hampshire county says : "I can hardly 
state my own opinion of curing clover. When the weat|jer bids 
fair to be good, I mow it after the dew is off, and cock it up 
after being wilted, using the fork instead of rolling with the 
rake, and let it remain several days, when it is fit to put into 
the barn." Another in the same county says : " I mow my clover 
in the forenoon, and towards night of the same day I take forks 
and pitch it into cocks and let it stand till it cures. The day I 
cart it I turn the cocks over so as to air the lower part. I then 
put it into the mow with all the leaves and heads on, and it is 
as nice and green as green tea. I think it worth for milch 
cows and sheep as much per ton as English hay." 

A farmer of Middlesex county says : " I have found no better 
hay for farm stock than good clover, cut in season. For milch 
cows it is much better than Timothy. It keeps horses that are 
not worked hard better than any hay. And small clover, as the 
rowen crop, is better than any other kind for calves. Clover is 
not good market hay, as it wastes in removal from the barn. 
Stable keepers give much more for coarse Timothy that cannot 
easily be drawn through a rack." A farmer of Barnstable 
county says : " We mow clover in the forenoon and let it lie in 
the swath and put it into small cocks in the afternoon. If the 



188 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

weatlier be fair on the third day, open it to the air and siin for 
two or three hours and then put it into the barn. I have found 
clover cured in this way keep sweet and free from mould, and 
of equal value with other hay." Another says: "I have tried 
three different ways of curing clover. One was, to make it in 
the same manner of other grasses ; another, to dry it one day in 
the swath till wilted and then pitch it into cocks to stand some 
days, according to circumstances; and the third was, to give it 
one good day's sun, turning it over and getting out the water, 
and mixing it in the barn with old hay or straw. I managed 
in tliis way a year ago, the weather being very ' catching,' cut 
and dried it as much as possible in one day and carted it into 
the barn the same afternoon. I mixed it with some old swale 
hay that had been left over, placing a layer of old hay then a 
layer of clover, building it up in a square mow. My neighbors 
laughed at me and said I should burn my barn down by put- 
ting in that ' green stuff.' But I must say I never had better 
clover hay than that. The cattle would eat all the meadow, or 
swale hay, as well as the clover. There was not a particle of 
smoke about it on feeding it out. When cured in this way or 
by the second method, in the cock, I think clover hay is worth 
two-thirds as much as good English hay to feed out to farm 
stock." 

From what has been said in these extracts, which might be 
multiplied, did space permit, it appears evident that good farm- 
ers appreciate the importance of so curing clover as to preserve 
its tender and succulent foliage. They are careful not to over- 
dry it, for fear of loss of the blossoms and the leaves. But it 
is not uncommon among thiiftless farmers, to handle it in such 
a way that the best parts of it are shaken off and destroyed. 

The method detailed in the last extract, of mixing clover 
with a poor quality of hay or straw, has sometimes been adopted 
with great success, the clover imparting its fragrant odor to the 
hay with which it is brought in contact, greatly improving its 
quality, while its own value is preserved without injury. It is 
not only a matter of convenience oftentimes, to have the clover 
so secured in catching weather, but on careful experiment may 
be found worthy of being more generally practiced. 

The general testimony of practical farmers as to the value of 
clover hay as compared with that of Timothy and redtop, 



METHODS OF CURING. 189 

our prevailing natural grasses, varies exceedingly, some making 
it of equal value, others estimating it at one-half and from that 
to two-thirds and three-fourths. 

Corn Fodder. — The practice of raising Indian corn to 
cut and feed out green by way of partial soiling, is very 
common in New England, as already intimated, in speaking of 
the natural history of the grasses. This culture has been 
carried still farther by many farmers, and many acres are raised 
in various parts of the State for the purpose of cutting and 
curing for winter use. And now that great hopes are enter- 
tained by many of the utility of the culture and use of the 
Chinese sugar cane, which, it is thought may be raised, cut and 
cured in the same way and for the same purpose, it is impor- 
tant to allude to the most approved methods of curing, though 
they may already be familiar to most practical farmers. 

The common practice with regard to this crop, and which has 
been already partially stated, is to sow in drills from two and a 
half to three feet apart, on land well tilled and thoroughly 
manured, making the drills from six to ten inches wide, with 
the plougli, manuring in the furrow, dropping the corn about 
two inches apart and covering with the hoe. In this mode of 
culture the cultivator may be used between the rows when the 
corn is from six to twelve inches high, and unless the ground is 
very weedy no other after culture is generally needed. The 
first sowing usually takes place about the 20th of May, and this 
is succeeded by other sowings at intervals of a week or ten 
days, till July, in order to have a succession of green fodder. 
But if it is designed to cut it up to cure for winter use, an 
early sowing is generally preferred, in order to be able to cure 
it in warm weather, in August or early in September. Sown 
in this way, about three or four bushels of corn are required for 
an acre, since if sown thickly, the fodder is better, the stalks 
smaller, and the waste less. 

The chief difficulty in curing corn cultivated for this pur- 
pose and after the methods spoken of, arises mainly from the 
fact that it comes at a season when the weather is often colder, 
the days shorter, and the dews heavier than when the curing of 
hay takes place. Nor is the curing of corn cut up green, so easy 
and simple as that of drying the stalks of Indian corn cut above 
the ear, as in our common practice of topping, since then the 



190 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

plant is riper, less juicy, and cures more readily. The method 
sometimes adopted is to cut and tie into small bundles, after it 
is somewhat wilted, and stook upon the ground, where it is 
allowed to stand, subject to all the changes of the weather, with 
only tlie protection of the stook itself. The stooks consist of 
bunches of stalks first bound in small bundles, and are made 
sufficiently large to prevent the wind from blowing them over. 
The arms are thrown around the tops to bring them together as 
closely as possible, when the tops are broken over or twisted 
together, or otherwise fastened in order to make the stook 
" shed the rain " as well as possible. In this condition they stand 
out till sufficiently dried to put into the barn. 

But Indian corn stooked in. this way often becomes musty 
or covered with dust, while the rains often soak it thoroughly 
and wash out much of its soluble matter, and its nutritive 
value is in a great measure lost. Besides, every one knows that 
to cut up a green plant, as a willow or any other thriftily grow- 
ing plant or shrub, and set it up with the cut end resting upon 
the ground where it can still derive moisture from the soil, will 
prevent its drying. There can be no doubt, also, that the 
exposure to the sun, wind and rain, greatly injures it by 
removing much of its sweetness, or changing it to woody fibre, 
while it takes from it its beautiful fresh green color. 

To avoid the losses necessarily attending these modes of cur- 
ing, some have suggested kiln drying as far preferable, and, on 
the whole, as economical. I have known the experiment tried 
in one or two instances with complete success, the fodder com- 
ing out with its fresh green color, and apparently better relished 
by cattle than that dried in the ordinary way. This method 
appears to me to be worthy of much more extended and careful 
experiment. The kiln need not be elaborately or expensively 
contrived. The process of drying would be short and the labor 
slight. 

Another mode which has been suggested is to hang it up in 
sheds open to the air, precisely as tobacco is cured in the west- 
ern part of the State. This process would be longer, but the 
nutritive qualities of the plant would probably be better pre- 
served than if cured in the open air with the exposure to the 
frequent changes of the weather. It is hardly necessary to say 
that if it is proposed to cure in this way, it should be hung 



METHODS OF CURING. 191 

up thinly and the air should be allowed to circulate through it. 
After being well dried it is taken down and stowed away in the 
barn for use. This method avoids the trouble of stooking and 
the liability to injury from rains and dews, which blacken 
the stalks, though it requires considerable room, and is, of 
course, attended with some additional labor. 



THE HORSERAKE. 

This implement has come into universal use, and no farmer 
of any extent would be without one. It met with great oppo- 
sition and encountered great ridicule on its first introduction, 
but has survived it all and become indispensable in all thrifty 
and economical farming. I shall do no more than give the 
authority of practical farmers in answer to the thirteenth ques- 
tion of the -circular, " Have you used a horserake, if so, what 
patent, and with ivhat advantage .^" 

To this, an experienced farmer of Middlesex thus replies : " I 
have used various horserakes for fifteen years. Much labor is 
saved by the use of any kind of horserake that has been 
introduced within that time. 

" Horserakes are on a footing different from mowing machines. 
Grass may be cut in the morning, in the evening, or in a cloudy 
day. But hay must be raked at the very right time, or it may 
be entirely spoiled. It is, therefore, quite important to do work 
quick when the time for doing it comes. With a good rake a 
man and horse will gather more hay in half an hour than a 
laborer with a handrake usually gathers in a long afternoon 
— that is, one acre ; this is considered a half day's rakhig by 
handrake. 

" The independent rake operates quite well. The old revolv- 
ing rake (Fig. 105) costs about the same. 

" The spring-tooth rake is patented, as I am informed. One 
objection to this is, that the wire teeth scratch up too much 
earth. This is seen in Fig. 106. 

" Buckminster's patent was obtained about sixteen years 
ago. His rake is quite simple in form and will gather more hay 
than either of the other kinds, in an hour. But the operator 
must walk, and a boy is wanted on the horse. The price is 



192 



GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 



four to five dollars, as any carpenter or wheelwright can make 
them." 

A practical farmer of Worcester county says : " I have used 
what is called the independent horserake, Delano's patent, I 
believe, and with great advantage. I have also used the revolv- 
ing and the spring-tooth rake. I prefer the independent. In 
short, it is my opinion, that no modern invention of agricultu- 
ral implements has made so great a saving over the old method 
of performing farm work, as the independent horserake." 




Fig. 105. Revolving Horserake. 




Fig. 106. Spring-tooth Horserake. 

A farmer of Norfolk county says : " I have used Delano's 
independent rake for several years. I regard it as a valuable 
implement, saving tfiirty per cent, at least, of labor and time. 
This rake ought to be made of better materials and with more 
care, or it will be given up for some other." This rake is seen 
in Fig. 107. The complaint that it is very badly made and 
constantly liable to get out of order in consequence, is very 
general. 

A practical farmer of Franklin county says : " I have used a 
revolver ever since I commenced working on a farm, and would 



METHODS OF CURING. 



193 



as soon think of haying without a pitchfork as without a horse- 
rake." 

Another experienced, practical farmer of Worcester county 
says : "I used an iron-toothed rake three seasons, and I 
thought with profit, but I bought one of Delano's independent 
rakes, and I think it is worth three times as much as any iron- 
toothed one, as it does not make the hay so dusty as the others. 
It is also a great saving in time and labor, as a boy twelve years 




Fig. 107. Independent Horserake. 

old will rake as much with Delano's patent, as a man and boy 
with any other kind I have ever seen, and do it better. I have 
used one of this kind for four seasons, and it has not cost me 
twenty-five cents a year for repairs, although my farm is rough 
and rocky." 

Another says : " The horserake is a great labor-saving imple- 
ment. For several successive years I used the revolving horse- 
rake to good advantage. There was labor in it, but it is a 

25 



194 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

good rake. Delano's patent — the independent tooth horse- 
rake — has taken the place of the revolver with me ; it is man- 
aged with much more ease, the teeth each one acting independ- 
ent of all others, at all times laying on the surface, whether 
even or otherwise, will rake cleaner than the revolver, and will 
not get so much dirt on the hay as will the spring-tooth." 

And another : " I use the wire-tooth. The independent, or 
wheel rake is used some ; both are good. I cut about sixty tons 
of hay, and my rake I have no doubt saves me $20 every year. 
First in labor, and second, in quality of hay — every thing being 
raked at night." Another says : " We have used the revolv- 
ing horserake for the last ten years or more, and my opinion 
is, that could I have my choice between six men or a horse and 
rake, after dinner, with a quantity of hay to secure, I should 
take the latter." 

A very successful farmer of Essex county says : " Wg 
formerly used the revolver with good success ; but for the last 
four or five years we have used Delano's independent horserake 
and like it better than the revolver, as it is easier for the horse, 
easier for the person who uses it, and rakes better on 
uneven land. ' The great difficulty with the independent rake 
is, that it is so wretchedly made, that our farmers cannot 
depend upon it, and they complain of its getting out of order 
at times when they most need it. They are compelled to resort 
to the use of other patents which are not so convenient, on 
account of their being better constructed." Another in Hamp- 
den county says: "I have used the independent horserake for 
seven years, and find it a great labor-saving machine. It has 
not cost me a dollar to keep in repair and it is now as g-ood 
as new, though most farmers who use it say it is liable to get 
out of order from being very badly manufactured. This, if 
true, is enough to condemn any farm implement, because 
farmers are not generally so situated as to be able to afford such 
frequent mishaps." 

Still another patent, which promises to be a great addition to 
our present facilities for raking hay, has been introduced under 
the name of " Carpenter's Improved Horserake." This rake is 
seen in Fig. 108. It was patented in August last, and the par- 
ties interested claim for it very important advantages over the 
horserakes now in common use. The driver rides upon the 



METHODS OF CURING. 



195 



rake comfortably seated, and by means of a lever, which he can 
move at will, and without changing his position, frees the hay 



gathered in the teeth of the rake. 



It is a double rake, made for both smooth and rough ground. 
On smooth ground the wheels may be used, while on rough 




ground the driver may walk behind and manage it with ease, 
and adapt it without difficulty to inequalities of surface. It is 
simply constructed, and is manufactured by Nourse, Mason 
& Co., of Boston. As it is a new implement, and has never 
been used, to my knowledge, in this State, I cannot speak of it 
from personal observation or experience. 



196 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 



HAY CAPS. 

The frequent losses to which farmers are subject in making 
hay, has suggested the use of hay caps, made to cover the cocks 
and protect them from the weather. It is but recently that 
their use was introduced, and like most novelties, it has met 
with objections from some, on the score of economy, while their 
use is as strongly approved by others, on the same ground. I 
have often seen them used, and the time taken to cover an acre 
of grass or hay in cock partially cured, is less than most would 
naturally suppose. Where they are to be used, less care is 
needed for " trimming down " the cock and putting it in a con- 
dition to shed the rain in the 1)est possible manner. 

An experienced, practical farmer of Worcester county says : 
" I have used hay caps with good results. I have one hundred 
made of cotton sheeting two yards square, with pins attached 
to the four corners with strong twine ; the hundred cost me 
just forty dollars ; I think they have saved me twenty dollars 
this year. I had at one time this season one hundred and 
thirty cocks standing out in a six days' storm. One lumdred 
were covered, and not having caps enough, thirty were left 
uncovered. The uncovered was worth but little, while the 
covered was passable hay. I stooked some oats which I capped 
— they stood a two days' rain without injury." And another : 
'^' Our caps are made of heavy five-fourths cotton cloth, cut 
.square with four little loops through which we run a slim 
•wooden pin into the hay cock ; the pins hold it better than 
weights in the corner. Ours cost twenty-one cents apiece — 
liave saved the cost in one storm this season." 

A practical farmer of Hampshire county says : — 

" In reply to your question as to the utility of hay caps, it 
gives me pleasure to say, that, after using them constantly, for 
the last seven years, I consider them of the first importance in 
the most critical l^ranch of farming. 

" I can safely affirm, that my hay has been intrinsically worth, 
on the average, one or two dollars a ton more than my neigh- 
bors', which has been proved by the remarkable health of my 
animals. 



METHODS OF CURING. 19T 

" My horses have not been sick an hour, and the heaves are 
unknown in my stable, which may fairly be attributed to the 
fact that no musty hay ever enters my barn ; and, it is probable, 
that the milk of cows may be as unhealthy, if they eat badly 
cured hay, as if fed on what is called swill in the cities. 

" Having these covers always at hand, it has been my practice 
to mow my grass when it was ready, ivithout consulting the 
almanac, or ivaiting for a change of the moon; and the result 
has been, that I have had more than my share of good luck in 
this important branch of business. 

" They are also very useful as a protection against heavy 
dews ; and as a cover for coarse clover and Timothy I consider 
them indispensable. 

" After long experience, I have found the most approved 
method of making hay covers, which may be used for wheat 
and other grain crops with great advantage, is to take stout, 
unbleached cotton sheeting, of a suitable width, say from 
thirty-seveii to forty-five inches wide — the latter is the best — 
cut it into squares, and attach to each corner, by a string, or 
otherwise, a pin made of wood, twelve or fifteen inches long, 
cut off smooth at one end and rounded over at the other, which 
completes the afi'air. The size of the pin should be about an 
inch in diameter. 

" Hemming the selvages is a matter of fancy, as they would 
do very well without it ; and if a tannery is near by, it would 
greatly improve them by plunging them into a vat for two or 
three days ; this would thicken up the cloth an inch or two, 
and make it more durable, as well as much more effectual. 
A decoction of bark, with alum, or some other astringent, would 
probably answer equally as well, but this is not necessary, to 
make an excellent hay cover. Like a cotton umbrella, the first 
dash of a heavy shower would cause it to spatter through for a 
moment, but would do little or no harm. I doubt whether a 
larger size than forty-five inches square, or forty-five by fifty, 
would be desirable, — mine have been not much over thirty-six 
inches square. 

" At the suggestion of several practical farmers of this State, 
the Messrs. Chases &, Fay, of Boston, are now establishing an 
extensive manufactory for the purpose of furnishing the agri- 
cultural community, throughout the country, with a ready 



198 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

made article at the lowest possible price ; but, judging from the 
extensive use of the covers last year, in consequence of articles 
published in agricultural journals in the United States, as well 
as Canada, it is doubtful whether they Avill be able to supply a 
quarter part of the demand. The article made by them is shown 
in Fig. 109." 

A farmer of Norfolk says : " I have never used them myself, 
but they are used in the neighborhood to good advantage. A 
neighbor of mine who has used them for three years says they 
have been worth to him this year the whole cost, as with them 
he has been able to get all his hay in in good order, while a 
large quantity, where they were not used, was made nearly 
worthless by the long continued wet weather," 

But on the other hand, a farmer of Middlesex county says : 
" I have never used hay caps, not having faith enough in them 
to give them a trial. My objections are, that they cannot be of 
any use as a permanent shelter, but only in a sudden shower — 
and then we have no time to put them on. We can save more 
hay by putting it in cocks and trimming well than by covering 
with canvas cloth. In fair weather the cap would be decidedly 
injurious, as it would prevent the escape of vapor or steam. 
Cocks of hay that are left to stand in the field over the Sabbath 
are often dried enough in the upper half. But in case caps 
were put on for Saturday night the drying would not advance 
on Sunday unless you should make it a business to remove 
them on Sunday forenoon." 

A permanent structure for covering and protecting hay stacks 
is described by a farmer of Bristol county as follows : " I have 
a structure called a hay cap, which, if farmers have not suf- 
ficient barn room, I think would be economical, as hay can be 
more rapidly secured than in the common stack, obviates the 
necessity of fencing, and prevents the hay from becoming wet 
while the stack is open for feeding. This cap is twelve feet 
square and consists of two sills fourteen feet in length and 
eight inches square, four posts five inches square and seventeen 
feet long framed into the sills one foot from the end of the 
same. The sills are held together l^y two girts framed into the 
post just above the sill. The posts are held firmly by girts 
placed five feet eight inches above the sills, to which height the 
box part of the structure is boarded. The posts above the box 



FEEDING IN THE FALL. 201 

are perforated with holes one foot apart for the insertion 
of pins to sustain the cap or cover. This (in form of a pyra- 
mid) should be made as light as possible, so that it may be 
readily raised by placing the shoulder under the corner. The 
frame of three by four joists, must be large enough to fall 
outside the posts and admit of some play. The rafters are 
small joists nine feet in length, the feet resting upon short 
pieces of joist placed across the corner of the frame, thereby 
forming openings for the posts to pass. The tops of the rafters 
are nailed together over the centre of the frame. Girts should 
be placed half way from the eaves to the point of the roof to 
nail covering boards to. These shoiild be good half-inch stuff, 
and run from the eaves to the rafters. The top of the post 
should be kept from spreading by stay lathing them. A hay 
cap of the dimensions given, will hold five tons of hay. The 
cost I do not know, as this was on the place at the time of my 
coming on to it." 

FALL FEEDING. 

This is the term applied to feeding off the aftermath of mow- 
ing lands. This practice is very prevalent, and is justified by 
experienced farmers rather on the plea of necessity than any 
other, since most farmers, of careful observation, admit that it 
is, on the whole, injurious. A large proportion of those who are 
in the habit of fall-feeding, speak like the following, from a 
practical farmer of Middlesex, who says : "I feed off slightly, 
although it would probably be better for the next crop if I did 
not. My cows, however, like it, and as they pay me well at the 
milk pail, I like to see them enjoy themselves." Another, in 
answer to the questions, " Do you feed off the after-growth of 
your mowing lands in the fall ? Do you think it an injury or a 
benefit to the field to feed it off? " says : " I do generally, but 
consider it an injury to the field." Another says : " I do feed 
off, moderately, the after-growth of my mowing fields, and believe 
the grass worth much more so fed than if left on the ground to 
rot. A dense mass of dead grass is also much in the way of the 
scythe and the rake the next year." A practical farmer of 
Worcester county says : " I feed off the after-growth of mowing 
lands only when I am compelled to do so in dry seasons for want 

26 



202 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

of pasture. I think it an injury to feed off, unless there is a 
large growtli, which is better to be fed off, so that it will not fall 
down and heat the roots and kill thjni." 

Another says : " I feed my mowing lands in the fall and 
think it is a benefit to the field in all cases where a top-dressing 
is used, and of no injury to an old field that is ploughed once 
in three or four years. Where a large growtli of after-feed 
remains on the land it is like mulching trees, kills the grass 
roots and makes a graiid shelter in winter for mice." 

A farmer of Ilamps-hire county says: " I feed it off and then 
top-dress it, and think it a benefit to the land, but should con- 
sider it an injury if I did not top-dress." 

An experienced, practical farmer says : " I feed it off, but think 
it an injury to the field to do so, and I should much prefer not to 
feed mowing lands at all. The grass holds in longer and is of 
better quality. I feed it off liccause it is necessary to eke out a 
comfortable support for my stock." And another: " To some 
extent. I do not think it beneficial to the land to feed much 
every year, nor very injurious to feed some ; but to feed close, I 
deem highly injurious." 

A very experienced farmer of large observation, in Plymouth 
county, says: "To some extent, I feed it off, not from choice 
but convenience. The treading of the cattle is soin3 injury, 
and they feed on the best kinds of grass and leave the wild 
grasses to extend the area of their growth. In my experience, 
mowing grounds are kept in the best condition by taking off 
the first and second crops with the scythe, and Inennially dress- 
ing Mdth compost manures." 

This accords with the experience of another practical farmer 
who says : " My practice is to feed the after-growth or mow 
it. To take all from the soil without returning an equivalent, 
would be injurious. My custom is to top-dress my mowing 
grounds with good compost manure, about fifteen cart loads to 
the acre, once in two or three years — a portion of lots in one 
year and a portion the next. Where the ground is not liable to 
wash — carry the manure off — 1 prefer spreading the manure in 
the autumn ; it is dissolved l»y the fall rains and winter snows, 
and the grass is benefited in the early spring." 

An experienced farmer of E^scx county says: "Farmers here 
are in the habit of feeding oft" their mowing lands in the fall, 



FEEDING IN THE FALL. 203 

but have no doubt that the crop of grass would be better the 
next season, not to feed them. Some think the injury not so 
great as the value of tlie feed of the after-growth." 

A practical farmer of Franlvlin county says : "I have had 
considerable experience in both ways,, and do not think fall 
feeding is any injury if it is not fed too close ; prefer feeding 
to mowing the second crop, and prefer feeding with sheep than 
cattle." And another : " The feeding of dry mowing injures 
it by causing it to run out, leaving the roots exposed to the 
winter, while moist land is injured by the cattle's feet much 
more than the value of the feed, in both cases taking all off 
and leaving nothing to renovate the land another season." 

An experienced farmer in the same county, and one of the 
best grazing towns in the State, says : " It is now more than 
twenty years since I have allowed any kind of domestic animal 
to feed upon our mown lands, and my opinion previously has 
been fully confirmed by my experience. It is a decided benefit 
to let the after-growth remain upon the land ; it is a protection 
from summer's drought and winter's cold. Some of <my neigh- 
bor's are following my example." And another: " I sometimes 
feed off my after-grass. When I do feed it off, I take good care 
to feed it early and leave a good growth to protect the roots of 
the grass from frost in winter. I think it an injury to feed ; 
mowings will last longer not to be fed at all, and the land when 
broken up will produce a better crop of corn or potatoes than 
if fed." 

From these extracts it will appear that the practice of fall- 
feedhig is very general, while the good judgment of practical 
farmers almost unanimously condemns it as injurious, especially 
to feed closely and late in the season. The reasons assigned 
for the practice are chiefly, the necessity generally felt for feed 
at that season of the year, and the importance, in some situa- 
tions — particularly on interval lands — of removing all protec- 
tion for the mice, which frequently prove very destructive to the 
roots when buried with the snow in winter. All condemn 
the practice of too close feeding, under all circumstances. 

The fall growth collects the elements of a thrifty growth in 
the following spring. These are stored up in the roots over 
winter for the early use of the plant. If it is closely fed, the 
spring growth must be proportionably later and feebler. 



204 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 



GENERAL TREATMENT OF GRASS LANDS. 

The importance of having the ground well tilled and thor- 
oughly prepared by liberal manuring before committing the 
seed to it, is too apparent to need remark. When the seed is 
sown, it is the common practice to harrow it in, either with an 
iron tooth, or a bush or brush harrow, or both, and those who 
adopt a more careful culture follow these operations with a 
thorough rolling, which compresses the soil and usually causes 
an earlier germination of the seed. The importance of this 
last operation, that of rolling, is too often overlooked. By ref- 
erence to table XV., the importance of covering at the proper 
depth is also apparent, since it will be seen that a large pro- 
portion of the seeds germinated with a very slight covering. 

But if one thing more than another may be said to lie at the 
foundation of all real improvement of grass lands, or lands 
under a course of rotation, it is a proper system of drainage. 
Especially is this important for low, wet lands, since it not only 
frees them from superfluous water, thus making them more sus- 
ceptible of tillage in early spring, but actually increases their 
temperature several degrees, in some cases as much as from 
eight to ten, and rarely less than from two to four, and admits 
the air to circulate more freely around the roots of the plants. 
The aquatic grasses require large and constant supplies of 
moisture, and when the soil is changed by drainage, the more 
valualjle species of grass may be introduced and cultivated in it. 
But one of the most important questions which the farmer of 
New England has to meet, is the proper treatment of his pas- 
ture lands. Many of our old pastures have been stocked hard 
time out of mind, and the grasses in them have been literally 
starved out aiul grow thin of necessity, while, as the finer and 
nutritious gra.r:fcs disappear, nature very kindly covers up the 
nakedness of the soil with moss, as an evidence of the effect, 
and not the cause ot poverty. They are said to be " worn " or 
" run out." Many of them are grown over with bushes and 
briars and other equally worthless pests, till they carry but one 
animal to four or five acres, and often require twice that amount 



GENERAL TREATMENT. 205 

to keep an animal on foot, to say nothing of fattening liim. It is 
a well known saying that, " Poor pastures make breachy cattle." 

Undoubtedly thousands of acres in this State would be far 
more profitably covered with pines than with cattle, and many 
an observing farmer is now convinced of this fact ; but still we 
must have pasture lands, and there are circumstances where it 
becomes important to improve them and increase their produc- 
tiveness. Some of them are so situated that they can be 
ploughed and thus brought in, with other cultivated lands, to 
the general rotation ; and where this can be done, it may be, on 
the whole, the best and most economical mode of improving 
them. 

A well known farmer of Worcester county says: "I have 
renovated my old pasture land by pulling up the bushes by the 
roots, scarifying the foul or mossy places with the harrow, and 
sowing on grass seed and clover, both red and white." Another 
says: " Plough, manure and re-seed. Some have sown rye with 
the grass seed and then let the stock feed on the rye, as it will not 
produce any seed-stalks — it sometimes lasts three years. This 
method has been put in practice with marked success. On our 
hills, ground plaster or gypsum has brought in the white clover 
the next year after sowing." A practical farmer of Middlesex 
says:' "The best method I have found is to plough in forty 
loads of good stable manure to the acre, plant, hoe, and kill the 
bushes and moss, then seed down with redtop and white clover, 
instead of taking a crop of rye without adding any thing to the 
soil, then seeding down with 'barn chaff' as many do." An 
experienced farmer of Hampden county says : " If the pasture 
lands can be ploughed, do it in the month of June, say seven 
inches deep, harrow thoroughly, sow one hundred pounds of 
Peruvian guano and three pecks of buckwheat, per acre, harrow- 
ing them in at the same time. Sow as much grass seed and of 
the kind best adapted to the soil as you please, and bush it in. 
I have tried twenty acres at a time with good success." 

Another says : " It can be done in various ways. I have a 
piece of pasture land near my house that bore hardly a spear of 
grass, and nothing else, except five finger and other weeds that 
usually grow on old, worn out pine plains, and I commenced 
twenty-four years ago by sowing Timothy and redtop and a 
bushel and a half of plaster of Paris, per acre, once in two years 



206 GRASSES AND' FORAGE PLANTS. 

up to this time ; the grass increased from year to year so as to 
cover most of the land in thirteen years. Ten years ago I com- 
menced ploughing it. I ploughed about one acre and put on 
fifteen loads of compost manure and planted it with corn. I 
sowed it down in the fall with rye, Timothy and redtop, and 
sowed clover in the spring, and about a bushel and a half of 
plaster of Paris, per acre. The next year I ploughed another 
part and manured it the same, except that I planted this with 
melons, dunged in the hill, seven feet apart, and then sowed it 
down in the fall the same as .the other piece. The next year I 
took up the remainder, and all the manure I put on the piece, 
except in the hill, was the water carted on it from a hole in my 
barnyard. It was immediately ploughed under, then holed and 
dunged in the hill seven feet apart, planted with melons, and in 
the fall sowed as the other parts. Since that it has continued 
to bear very large grass. When I have turned my cattle into 
it the first of June, I have judged, and others who have seen it, 
that had I not pastured it I might have cut a ton to the acre. 
The soil of this piece consists mostly of sand resting upon a 
subsoil of gravel. Most of our pastures are spoiled by feeding 
off too early in the spring and overstocking. Cattle should not 
be turned in till the first of June, and then not overstocked, so 
that there will always be spots of grass to go to seed, which will 
keep the pasture well stocked with grass. Always keep your 
pasture stocked with grass ; if you cannot keep it on any other 
way sow on Timothy and redtop and harrow it in, once a year. 
I prefer to do it in August, but any other month in which you 
are most at leisure, will do. 

Another experienced farmer says : " Old pastures should be 
ploughed and planted when they are not too rough for those 
operations. They may then be seeded down in July among 
corn or beans, or grain may be sown with the grass seed in the 
following spring. But we have too much rough pasture unfit 
for the plough. It should never have been cleared for pastur- 
ing, but should have been left to run to wood. Such rough 
lands are often much improved by sowing plaster at the rate of 
two hundred pounds per acre. Plaster generally works well on 
clays and clayey loams which are not wet." Another says; 
" Where I have ploughed and planted old pastures and tlien 
seeded anew, the cattle get a much better living." One of the 



GENERAL TREATMENT. 207 

best farmers of Norfolk county says : " Either by plougbing, 
rolling and sowing down grass seed and grain in September or 
April, or ploughing in manure after removing the crop on old 
ground, and cross plough in the spring, then spread and harrow 
in guano, at the rate of three hundred pounds per acre, or a good 
dressing of compost, and sow Rhode Island bent, or rcdtop and 
white and red clover, with some variety of grain ; or by scari- 
fying mossy ground, and sowing in grass seed and harrowing it, 
then applying three hundred pounds of guano, or one bushel 
and one peck of salt, or ashes from ten to twenty bushels, per 
acre, harrow and bush the ground. Sow early in fall or spring." 
A farmer of this State Avho has lived and had a large observa- 
tion in England, says : " Some farmers say the plough. But in 
England, where old pastures are seldom broken up, I have 
known extraordinary results from top-dressing with crushed 
bones, more particularly on the large dairy farms in Cheshire. 
I am sorry I cannot give you the quantities. A neighbor of mine 
has harrowed an old, worn out pasture, dressed with a liberal 
Coating of Barrilla ashes, from six to seven cords per acre, and 
sowed white clover and rolled it. It came out a beautil'ul pas- 
ture. The brush harrow and roller applied to all grass land in 
the spring will amply repay for the labor. Breaking and spread- 
ing the cattle droppings on the pasture land is well worth 
attending to." A farmer of "Worcester county says in answer 
to the sixteenth question of the circular : 

" This depends on the kind of land to be reclaimed. If it 
can be ploughed I would plough it and plant it with potatoes or 
something else to make it mellow and line, and then sow it to 
grass. If it is too rough or stony to plough, — which is the 
case with a large share of the pasturing in tliis section, — but is 
good, sweet, warm land, I would feed it with sheep. I have 
a pasture of this description, that a few years ago was cov- 
ered with briars and bushes so, thick that there was but very 
little grass upon it ; I cut off the l)ushes and put on sheep 
enough to eat every thing that grew upon it for four or five 
years. They have killed all the briars and most of the bushes. 
I have sowed some plaster of Paris, which is all I have done to 
it, and now one acre is worth, and will prodvice more feed, than 
three would ten years ago. I should say that my sheep have 
always done well on this pasture. If the land is cold and 



208 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

wet, and inclined to grow bushes, I let it go and never try to 
reclaim it, unless it is near the buildings or near the village 
where the land is very high. In that case it may pay to ditch 
and work it into -good smooth land." 

Another practical farmer of great experience says : " We 
have a variety of soil in this town ; some of the best of pasture 
lands, stony soils, generally clay subsoil. Plaster of Paris is 
our renovator for pasturage. It works most admirably on almost 
all of our lands. Two hundred pounds to the acre, applied once 
in two or three years in early spring, will keep our pastures 
good." Another in Plymouth county says : " The best method 
I have ever used is to fence in small pieces and then stock hard 
with sheep. Feed it down till no green thing remains, then 
turn the sheep off days and on nights till September, then har- 
row the land with a sharp harrow and sow on grass seed, keep- 
ing the cattle off the remainder of the season." 

An experienced farmer of Middlesex says : " It will improve 
an old pasture merely to plough and re-seed it without manure, 
but this is a slow mode and not to be recommended where it 
is possible to apply some sort of dressing. A better method is, 
without doubt, to plant for a year or two, manuring well, before 
sowing grass seed. The soil by being thus thoroughly stirred, 
and exposed to atmospheric influences, will give a sweeter grass 
and perhaps more of it. But it is not always convenient to 
plant a part of a pasture. In such cases great benefit would 
result from simply ploughing, manuring and seeding to grass 
immediately." 

But perhaps the best disposition that can be made of many 
of our poor, thin pasture lands, and one which has incidentally 
been alluded to, is to take the cattle from them entirely and 
cultivate them with forest trees. 1'his is frequently recom- 
mended in answer to the question proposed in the circular. A 
farmer of Middlesex county speaks in the following words : 
" Old worn out pasture lands that cannot be renovated by 
gypsum or ashes, had better be suffered to run up to wood. 
Pine lands can be seeded in the fall with a crop of winter 
rye, or without. Pine seed can be obtained by taking pains 
to collect the burs before they are open and drying them in 
some place where they can be threshed. This is white pine 
seed year." 



GENERAL TREATMENT. 209 

This, I am convinced, will be found to be perfectly practica- 
ble, and a rapid growth of pine wood, intermixed, as it should 
alwaj's be, with some deciduous growth like the white birch, 
will be fouhd to be more profitable than the use to which they 
are now put. 

I know many pastures of good strong soil, never ploughed 
within the memory of the living, some of which are known not to 
have been ploughed for a hundred and fifty years, which require 
from eight to ten acres to a cow, so entirely buried are they in 
moss and bushes. Such lands can be planted with pines at a 
small cost, and would soon be covered with a growth which 
would pay a large percentage on the outlay. I have, during the 
past season, examined over five hundred acres of cultivated 
pines in different parts of the State, varying in age from three 
months to twenty years, and can testify to the surprising 
rapidity with which such a plantation will cover the ground, 
concealing the fact of their being planted by the hand of man, 
and assuming the appearance of a dense forest. In one in- 
stance the owner informed me that his plantation had averaged 
him a cord to the acre every year for twenty years during which 
it had been planted, while the land, a light barren sand, had 
apparently been improved, and a thick undergrowth of hard 
wood was apparently ready to succeed the pine when the oppor- 
tunity offered. I have seen a growth of pitch pine, made this 
year, of over two feet six inches in length by measurement, 
and a growth of white pine, made in the same time, of two 
feet nine inches. The past year was an exception, for while 
generally the growth of wood is interrupted by the drought 
daring the hottest months of summer, and then starts out a 
new growth in the autumn, it continued with extraordinary 
vigor all through the season, in those parts of the State which 
were favored by frequent rains. The average growth would 
not, of course, equal that stated above. 

But still, there are circumstances, and they are not by any 
means unfrequent, where it is both practicable and desirable to 
take other methods of improvement for pasture and grass lands, 
and we come now to consider more in detail the 

27 



210 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 



TOP-DRESSING OF GRASS LANDS. 

The idea was formerly entertained that pasture lands were 
sufficiently enriched by the animals which fed them. Practical 
men begin to think otherwise, for it is found that a profitable 
return is made for the little outlay which they require. Particu- 
larly is this the case with pastures fed by milch cows. They 
do not return the essential elements of the plant to the ground 
in so large a proportion to what they take from it, as some other 
animals. These elements are required in great quantities to 
form their milk, while in other animals they are required only 
to form bone and muscle. The ordure of cows is, therefore, 
less valuable and fertilizing than that of other animals. The 
consequence is, tliat lands fed wholly by cows are exhausted 
sooner than those fed by other animals. For it is evident that 
where more is taken from the soil than is re.turned, exhaustion 
must follow. 

AVe furnish animal and vegetable matters to the earth, to 
supply it with substances which tlie growth of plants has taken 
from it. It will be obvious, on a moment's reflection, that the 
constituent parts of the plant are taken up from the earth and 
the air, in much the same manner as our food and drink 
become our bone and flesh. The analogy is still more distinct 
when we reflect that all our applications for the improvement 
of tlic soil, are nothing more than the supply of food for plants. 
For the food of plants is found in all manures, and the value 
of these depends upon the quantity the}'' contain. 

The methods of renovating mowing and pasture lands by 
means of top-dressings, do not essentially differ. An interest- 
ing experiment, not long ago, fell under my observation. On 
different parts of the same field, common meadow mud, rich barn 
and liquid manure impregnated with lime, were used as a top- 
dressing. The mud was hauled out in the autumn and thrown 
in heaps, and there left to the action of the frosts and snows of 
winter. In spring it was spread about the same time the other 
manure was applied. Strange as it may seem, the top to which 
the mud was applied, appeared to far the best advantage. The 
grass was heavier, and after the crop had been removed, that 



TREATMENT OF GRASS LANDS. 211 

part of the field on which the mud was applied, came in more 
quickly and luxuriantly than the rest. This field was a light, 
gravelly soil, which had not been under very high cultivation. 
Many of our soils are composed of gravel with a mixture of 
sand. These soils need the constituents of marl and meadow 
mud. Marl and mud contain the carbonate, or in some cases 
the sulphate of lime, or plaster of Paris. They contain a mix- 
ture of clay, which sandy or gravelly soils need. And on these 
soils clay mud has been found to do the best. Peat mud is a 
rich vegetable food, and if a small proportion of potash, or 
ashes, be added, it is valuable as a manure. Light soils are 
always improved by any substances which make them firmer 
and more compact. Stiff clay soils, on the other hand, are 
benefited by applications which make them lighter and more 
permeable. No one of the three kinds of earth, sand, clay and 
lime, when unmixed with the other varieties, would be capablo 
of supporting vegetation. The mixture of them, when any one 
predominates, will correct and improve them, for the fertility d 
soils depends much on the proportion of these constituents. In 
some marls the clay predominates. These should be used on 
the light sandy soils. In others the sand predominates. These 
are adapted to stiffer lands. The practice of mixing soils has 
always been attended with success when judiciously managed. 
Nor is this application of mud and clay any new fact to the 
practical agriculturist. The county of Norfolk, in England, is 
said to owe much of its great fertility to this source. The 
greatest European improvements in sandy soils, have been 
made by these means, in Belgium. As intimated in the experi- 
ment alluded to, it has always been found best to expose the 
m\id or clay to the action of the frost. It becomes mellowed 
so that it may be spread evenly upon the ground. Peat mud is 
composed of vegetable matter which has been accumulating for 
ages. When taken fresh it is found to contain an amount of 
acid which would make it improper for immediate use. Expos- 
ure to the frost, Avind and rain, entirely neutmlizes the acid 
properties. Ashes, or potash, would have the same effect. 

These substances may be said rather to ameliorate and im- 
prove the texture of soils than to furnish immediate sustenance 
to the plant. And in this view they cannot be too strongly 
recommended, for we have never known them to fail of having 



212 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

beneficial effects, both on pasture and mowing lands. And 
besides, the application of them is so simple, so much within 
the reach of every farmer, that it is well wortli the trial. If 
the soils are much v/orn, or very barren from a great preponder- 
ance of any particular eartli, a liberal allowance will be re- 
quired. Ordinarily, as in the experiments which have come 
under my notice, some twenty-five or thirty cart loads to the 
acre liave been found siifficient to increase very greatly the 
productiveness of the land. A still loss quantity would be of 
essential service. Nor is the expense of this application so 
great as some imagine, for almost every farm contains a quan- 
tity of waste peat meadow, and clay is frequently near at hand. 
It may be removed and prepared at a season of the year when 
tliere is but little else to do. Tlie expense, therefore, need not 
deter any one from its use. 

But there is another substance equally accessible, which acts 
both as an ameliorator and a fertilizer of the soil. It is, per- 
haps, one of the cheapest and most profitable top-dressings. It 
is the ricli loam which accumulates in the holes by the road 
side, and wherever the wash gathers from liills. Every one 
has observed the effect of the loam thrown out upon the grass 
in ploughing. The grass along the edges soon becomes greener 
in spring, and grows with greater luxuriance. The wash by the 
road side would have a far more powerful effect. For this con- 
tains, besides the putrescent animal matters, from the road, a 
quantity of sand, which rich soils wanting closeness and con- 
sistency, require on the surface. Spread upon such soils when 
covered with grass, it is very efficacious, and often malccs the 
vegetation as vigorous as stimulating manure. Experiments 
have clearly shown that the effect of sand, on some soils is to 
operate as a manure. 

Among the mineral manures, lime has sometimes been used 
as a top-dressing. Its effect arises not so much from any direct 
nutriment furnished by it to the grass, but from its influence 
on the substances in the soil. It hastens the decomposition of 
vegetable and mineral matters in the eartli. In this way it 
renews exhausted soils. It increases the temperature of cold, 
sour lands after being drained. It causes a rapid decay of peat 
substances. Hence its nse in the compost heap. It destroys 
th J. mossos and coarse herbage which work in among the grasses, 



TREATMENT OF GRASS LANDS. 213 

and indicate the want of lime in the soil. It produces from 
them a fine, vegetable mould, by causing the white and red 
clover, and some natural' grasses, to come in thicker and 
thicker each year. Lime produces a more marked effect on the 
grasses than on any other crop. It seems, very frequently, to 
increase the nutritive quality of the grasses as well as to 
increase their quantity, by assisting them to elaborate the 
juices, tlie albuminous substances and the sugar, in which their 
value as food for stock largely consists. 

But lime can never supply the place of other manures. 
There are properties which it cannot supply, which plaster can; 
others which it cannot supply, as bones can ; and others which 
it cannot supply like ashes, and manures that contain salts. 
There are situations, however, in which it is invaluable. On 
reclaimed meadow lands, after thorough draining, and a cover- 
ing of three or four inches of gravel, a top-dressing of lime 
has a beneficial effect. Crops of grass of two and three tons 
to the acre, have been taken after such a dressing of lime. In 
many cases the first crop will repay the expense of bringing 
such land into cultivation. In these situations, then, as well as 
on many pastures, it may be called one of the most useful appli- 
cations that can be made. Such lands will bear an abundant 
supply of lime without exhaustion. But on poor sandy soils it 
should never be used. It will soon exhaust and may render 
them completely barren. When it meets with clay in lands to 
which it is applied, it forms a kind of marl, and greatly im- 
proves the texture of the soil. But when it comes in contact 
with sand, it forms, rather, a sort of mortar. Hence it is 
thought to be injurious on sandy soils. Many soils have natu- 
rally a sufficient quantity of lime, and on these a further appli- 
cation is not needed. 

No definite rule, with respect to the amount required, can be 
given. It must depend upon the nature of the soil, and must 
be left to the judgment of those who use it. In general, on 
peat and clay soils, from ten to fifty bushels to the acre will be 
required, though less would, perhaps, be beneficial. 

The addition of lime to the compost heap is often of great 
importance. The decay of all vegetable substances is accele- 
rated by it; but it should not be brought in contact with decay- 
ing or fermenting animal substances unless covered by a thick 



214 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

coating of peat or other absorbent. Whenever lime is used in 
a compost — unless it be for the special purpose of hastening the 
fermentation of vegetable substances — it ought to be mixed 
with salt by dissolving the salt first in water and slacking the 
lime with it. A bushel of salt will thus prepare four bushels of 
lime. Refuse brine will answer very well. 

We come now to the use of ashes as a top-dressing. Of this 
we may speak with more confidence. For while experiments 
with lime have not invariably proved successful, owing, proba- 
bly, to the soils designed to be benefited, we know of no 
instances in which the application of ashes has not fully repaid 
the expense. If farmers would bear in mind that ashes contain 
all the elements which assist the growth of plants, they would 
be unwilling to part with a substance which they might turn to 
such profit. If the quantity is small, let it be husbanded with 
the greater care, instead of being sold, with the idea that so few 
can do no good. One substantial farmer says : " I am now, 
more than ever, fully persuaded of the value of ashes as a 
manure. Nothing in the wliole catalogue of manures, com- 
pares with them on my land. The soil was a thin, clayey loam, 
and where the ashes were sown tliere was a crop of excellent 
clover, where for years the land had been almost unproductive." 

Grasses are often more benefited by ashes than other crops, 
since they require a greater amount of the salts which ashes 
contain. For all permanent mowing lands, especially on the 
ligliter soils, ashes are among the cheapest of manures where 
they can be had in sufficient quantities. In poa'ts of Flanders 
and Belgium, countries in which the science of agriculture 
has been carried to a high perfection, the great loss of vegetable 
matters from the soil is constantly restored by ashes or bones, 
together with other manures to be mentioned hereafter. Indeed, 
almost all agriculturists, both in Europe and America, have 
attached very great importance to the use of ashes. In some 
parts of Germany they are held in so high esteem that they are 
transported to a distance of eighteen or twenty miles, to be 
used as a top-dressing. According to Prof. Liebig, with every 
one hundred and ten pounds of leached ashes of the common 
beech tree, spread upon the soil, we furnish as much phosphate 
as five hundred and seven pounds of the richest manures could 
yield. Phosphates are highly useful to all kinds of soil. 



TREATMENT OF GRASS LANDS. 215 

There can be no doubt that the process of leaching takes 
from the ashes a part of their fertilizing properties. For many- 
uses this is no objection. Especially is this the case near the 
sea, where leached ashes are thought by some to be even more 
serviceable, as the salt in the atmosphere the more readily com- 
bines with them. Every practical man has heard of the amaz- 
ing effects which bone dust has upon tlie soil. Yet this is 
valuable, chiefly, for the phosphate it contains. But if we may 
rely upon the statement of Prof. Liebig, leached ashes also con- 
tain a large amount of phosphate of lime, which would show 
them to be extremely valuable. But suppose we allow four 
bushels of leached ashes to one bushel of crusli.ed bones, the 
expense of the ashes, would, in most cases, be less than the 
bones. But if bones can be procured, a mixture of leached 
ashes and bones, four bushels to one, forms a very useful appli- 
cation. The compound should remain a week or two before be- 
ing used. Those who have tried leached ashes, have been fully 
satisfied of their superior qualities as a fertilizer. Careful 
experiments, by practical, conservative men, show that land pro- 
ducing one ton to the acre, has been so improved by this means 
as to yield three tons to the acre. Where tliirty bushels Avere 
used on three-fourths of an acre, in one instance, the crop was 
increased more than three-fold. Nor are leached ashes subject 
to the objections which are raised by some against the use of 
lime. They do not apparently exhaust the soil. The effect of 
them is felt for several years. Many farmers have found by 
experience, that one bushel of unleached hard wood ashes is 
nearly equal to two bushels of plaster, as a top-dressing for the 
dryer grass lands. If this be true, what has been said would 
show that leached ashes arc about equal to plaster in their 
effects on such lands. A peck of lime is commonly used in 
leaching a bushel of ashes. This, of course, adds to the value 
of leached ashes for grasses. They contain, also, a portion of 
the alkali which is decomposed by the action of the atmosphere, 
and the water in the soil prepares it for the food of plants. 

As we have spoken of the use of peat muck, it is proper 
here to say that ashes may be mixed with muck in the propor- 
tion of six or eight bushels to the cord. The muck is better, as 
usual, dug in the autumn, though the mixture might be made 
in the spring, or on application to the soil. If leached ashes 



216 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

are used, the proportion may be about one to three. In this 
case, the two substances mutually assist each other, and the 
compound is, perhaps, better than either alone would be. So 
potash added to peat muck, makes a valuable compound. 

In this connection we should allude to the practice of burn- 
ing sea-weed as a manure. The ashes of it are spread upon 
grass and pasture land. They form a very useful and powerful 
stimulant, but the process of burning sea-weed causes the loss 
of its most fertilizing qualities. The most common and efficient 
mode of application is to carry it directly upon the grass as a 
top-dressing. The coarse rock-weed and kelp decay in a much 
shorter time than the fine sea-weed, and are, no doubt, better 
than this. Whenever sea-weed is used, it is best on sandy or 
gravelly soils. From twenty-five to thirty, or even forty cart 
loads to the acre, are sometimes applied. Peat ashes form, in 
some cases, a valuable top-dressing for grass and pasture lands. 
In Holland, where every fertilizer is preserved with care, peat 
ashes as well as wood and coal ashes, are highly esteemed. 
The great value of the first is well known to many, and if those 
who have them will spread them upon grass at the rate of 
fifteen or twenty bushels on the lighter, and thirty or forty on 
the heavier soils, they will be abundantly repaid. 

If what has been said be true, and it is the result of many 
experiments, some of which have come directly under my own 
observation, farmers would do better to buy aslie* on the return 
of every spring, than to sell them, as is often done. 

Of the use of gypsum, or plaster of Paris, the most contra- 
dictory opinions have been expressed. So far as my observa- 
tion goes, — and I have both see;i and tried many interesting 
experiments on the old soils of this State, and the newer soils of 
Maine, — the application to moist soils has been satisfactory. It 
has been said that plaster does not benefit natural pastures. 
This, I apprehend, depends chiefly on the character of the soil. 
In one instance, a large pasture which had become worn and 
somewhat unproductive, received a generous top-dressing of 
plaster. The grass started sooner, and continued throughout 
the season to look far better than the adjoining pastures of pre- 
cisely the same soil. So far as could be ascertained, the increase 
in grass over the adjoining pastures, was about seventy-five per 
cent. Nor was this all. This pasture came in the next season 



TREATMENT OF GRASS LANDS. 217 

with the greatest luxuriance, and its load of beautiful green 
was the wonder of the neighborhood. Its effect on clover and 
Timothy is greater than on other pastures. Many have supposed 
that plaster would exhaust the soil. This would not seem to 
be the case, for as it takes four hundred and thirty parts of 
water to decompose one part of plaster, its decomposition is 
slow, and consequently its influence is felt for several years. 
How, then, can it have such immediate and beneficial effects ? 
It retains the fertilizing gas which is constantly rising from fer- 
menting vegetable matter, and gives it up at a proper time for 
the nourishment of the plant. It does not, like lime, cause 
vegetable matters to decay, but rather when they decay, holds 
their most important parts from escaping. 

The powerful odor which rises from decaying vegetable 
matter, from the stable, from the manure heap, and impercep- 
tibly from the whole surface of the earth, is one of the most 
important elements for the growth of the plant. Plaster fixes 
this, and the first shower washes it into the earth to feed the 
roots of plants. The relative value of manure depends, in a 
measure, upon the amount of this strong odor, this ammonia 
which it contains. This gas, commonly known as hartshorn, is 
an exceedingly powerful stimulant. Nor will it appear unimpor- 
tant, when we bear in mind that two and one-quarter pounds of 
this ammonia, lost by fermentation, is equal to the loss of one 
hundred and fifty pounds of grass or grain. Scientific men will 
say that this gas is taken up in the atmospliere by the rain, and 
descends with the rain to fertilize the earth. This is true. 
This ammonia, arising from all fermenting manures, so indispen- 
sable to the earth, is not lost forever when it flies away into the 
air. But does not the shrewd farmer perceive that as much of 
this as he allows to escape from his own lands, by neglect, falls 
upon, and improves the fields of his neighbor as much, and 
, perliaps more, than his own ? Is it not evident that by saving 
all that he can, and by receiving whatever the genial rain brings 
with it, he gets a double benefit ? 

If the efiect of plaster is such as we have described, no one 
can fail to see how important are the functions it may be made 
to perform. But it also adds a certain amount of lime and 
sulphur to the earth. It is composed of these substances for 
the most part, and hence called by chemists, sulphate of lime. 

28 



218 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

We shall have occasion to speak of its use in connection with 
other manures, when we speak of the compost heap. We now 
allude to its use by itself, as a top-dressing. 

On some soils it is not so satisfactory as on others. But our 
pastures are many of them covered with the white honeysuckle. 
These are often called clover lands. On all clover lands, 
whether reserved for pasture or mowing, plaster generally has 
a wonderful influence. A bushel, or two bushels to the acre, 
have been known to double the crop, and to add more than 
twenty times its own weight to it. Even greater results have 
followed. For if we may believe one of the most distinguished 
chemists,* every pound of nitrogen which we add to the grass, 
increases the produce one hundred and ten pounds, and this 
increased produce of one hundred and ten pounds is effected by 
the aid of a little more than four pounds of gypsum, or plaster. 
Another accurate investigator — Sir Humphrey Davy — found by 
actual experiment that the ashes of an acre of red clover, con- 
tain no less than three bushels of plaster of Paris. This impor- 
tant fact proves that the earth already contains a large amount 
of this substance, and that it is essential to the growth of 
clover. This may, perhaps, explain the so-called clover sick- 
ne^ in some land. The requisite supply of plaster has been 
exhausted. In any case, the addition of plaster to clover lands, 
and especially to pastures, is of the highest importance. 

The effect of charcoal is somewhat similar to plaster. Char- 
coal will absorb ninety times its own bulk of ammonia, whixjh 
is held from escaping till it is separated by water and carried 
into the earth for the plant. When dry, the operation of fixing 
the gas is repeated till the next shower sends the gas into the 
earth, and the particles of w^ater take its place in the charcoal. 
In this way, as a top-dressing, charcoal as well as plaster, per- 
forms the most important functions. If we take any decaying 
animal matter, which has begun to give off its offensive and 
noxious odor, its ammonia, and cover it with charcoal or plas- 
ter of Paris this escaping gas is immediately stopped. No dis- 
agreeable odor arises from it. The decay of the substance has 
suddenly ceased. This simple fact will show the intelligent 
farmer to what purposes these substances may be applied. His 
choice of these should depend somewhat on the expense of pro- 
* * Boussinffault. 



TEEATMENT OF GRASS LANDS. 219 

curing them. The relative expense depends so much upon 
circumstances, that we need not make the estimate. As an 
absorbent and retainer of the vahiable properties of manure, 
peat mud and loam will also be found of essential service. If 
used on a high and dry soil, the effect of plaster will not be 
very apparent the first season, unless like the past, there are 
frequent rains. 

There is an impression among many that plaster does not 
produce so good results in the immediate vicinity of the sea 
shore. If this is so, it does not arise, probably, from the prox- 
imity to the sea, but from other causes. Many of our lands do 
not need the application of plaster. I have seen it used, to the 
be^t advantage, within two miles of the sea. If there were 
any thing in tlie sea air to prevent plaster from performing its 
usual functions as an absorbent, the effect would be perceived 
to a far greater distance inland. If any failures have occurred 
in its use in tlie vicinity of the sea, they were probably owing 
to the soil rather than to the atmosphere. There is one other 
remark in this connection. When plaster has been applied 
without immediate effect, we should not at once conclude that 
it is useless on the particular soil to which it is applied. The 
first season may be dry, and ill adapted to its decomposition. 
In such cases, good results have ordinarily followed the second 
year. 

The great utility of bones as a manure, arises from the large 
amount of phosphates Avhich they contain. On all pastures 
which have been long fed, the phosphate of lime is exhausted. 
It is constantly taken from the earth in the grass, to form the 
bone, the muscle, and the milk of animals. Of the earthy 
matter in bones, nearly five-sixths consist of phosphate of lime 
and magnesia. Nitrogen is also abundant, and, of course, 
ammonia, for nitrogen is an clement of ammonia. A few bushels 
of bone dust will often quite restore old, " worn-out " pastures. 
Indeed, almost every part, of which bones are composed, goes 
directly to the nourishment of vegetable life. The ashes of all 
grains are very rich in phosphate of lime. This shows the 
importance of furnishing this element for their use. 

A mixture of crushed bones and ashes, or leached ashes, 
forms a valuable top-dressing. Nor will this application, in 
small quantities, be thought expensive, if what is said be true, 



220 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

that the animal part of bones, which amounts to about one- 
third, contains eight or ten times as much ammonia as the. 
manure of the cow, and that the fertilizing salts in bones are 
sixty-six times the amount of a like quantity of the manure of 
the cow. So that a smaller quantity of bone dust- will answer 
the purpose of a much larger quantity of manure from the 
stable. We can but hope that every farmer will try the experi- 
ment. It may be done on a small scale, at first, though in the 
vicinity of every butcher's establishment, bones can commonly 
be procured in any quantity. 

Thus far I have spokeu of manures which belong more 
peculiarly on the surface, as a top-dressing for grass. For 
though they are sometimes used, especially plaster, on plouglied 
land, with potatoes and other crops, yet their influence on the 
surface is thought to be far more effective. Indeed, the benefit 
of lime, plaster and charcoal, would, in a great measure, be 
lost were they to be buried to any depth in the eartli. But 
there are other manures which are often used as top-dressings. 

One of the best practical farmers of Hampden county, says : 
" I top-dress almost all of my mowing in the fall, cut two crops 
on all of them, and on some a third. I make a com- 
post of earth and manure — make in the lot where it is used, by 
ploughing off a thin turf on the lower side of a small hill or 
knoll, taking the turfs to the hog-yard, and then cart from the 
stable three, five, or ten loads, or more, as I have the manure. 
Drop the manure upon the ground that the turf was removed 
from, then plough on the upper side of the hill and shovel two 
loads of earth upon each load of manure, beginning in the 
spring, so on through the season. As the manure of the barn 
increases, cart to the meadow, placing it upon the upper side of 
the first heap and plough and shovel as before. From one hun- 
dred loads of good stable mg,nure it makes three hundred loads 
of good compost, and will make as much grass as so many loads 
of stable manure. For grass, put ten cart loads, per acre. 
Spread in the fall upon mowing, this compost makes more grass 
than green manure carted and spread upon mowing in the 
spring. In almost all cases the knoll or hill carted until it is 
level with the adjoining ground, produces more crop than 
before." 

Another, in Berkshire county, says : " Top-dressing for mow- 



TREATMENT OF GRASS LANDS. 221 

ing lands is very beneficial, but too expensive, if barnyard 
manure alone is used, so much passes off by evaporation. A 
compost of one-half or two-thirds turf or swamp muck, and one- 
third good manure, is quite as beneficial to the land, and proba- 
bly better or more enduring than all manure. If ashes are 
mixed in this compost it is all the better. But if stable manure 
alone or in compost is to be applied, it should be in autumn, so 
that the frosts of winter may incorporate it with the soil." 

Another farmer, of great experience and observation, in Ply- 
mouth county, says : "I top-dress generally late in the fall, 
but should prefer early spring dressing, if we could cart on the 
fields without injury, and the time could be spared from other 
business. My land is chiefly of a cold, tenacious soil, and a 
compost is made of one-fourth stable manure and three-fourths 
light loam. For warm land peat mud would be used instead of 
the loan\. Twenty common ox-cart loads, from thirty-three to 
thirty -five bushels each to -the acre, is as small a dressing as can 
be judiciously applied. Double that quantity would not be 
excessive." A practical farmer, of Norfolk county, says : 
" With respect to top-dressing for mowing lands, I would state, 
that for several years we have been in the habit of raising from 
one to three acres of early potatoes for market. We have 
usually dug them early in August, and before the tops were 
dead. The tops are taken directly from the field, and spread on 
the mowing lands, to very great advantage. We think the tops 
from an acre of potatoes sufficient to top-dress an acre of mow- 
ing land, and the effect is equal to three or four cords of good 
manure." 

The practice alluded to in this extract is worthy of a careful 
trial by those who are so situated as to adopt it. It is known 
that the tops of potatoes contain a large percentage of the 
organic elements of plants. 

Fromberg found in 100 lbs. of the leaves in a natural state, 
from .82 to .92 per cent, of nitrogen, and that 100 lbs. of leaves 
dried contain from 5.12 to 5.76 per cent, of nitrogen. If his 
results are correct, and there is no reason to distrust them, we 
add to the land 50 lbs. of inorganic salts, besides nearly 20 lbs. 
of nitrogen among the organic constituents of every ton of pota- 
to tops. This would make a ton of them equal in value more 
than two tons of the best Ichaboe guano. 



222 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

In a case wliicli I have in mind, a very poor, worn out grass 
lot, was top-dressed with fourteen ordinary cart loads of good 
stable manure to the acre. The quantity of grass was increased 
fourfold. Clover and Timothy came in as luxuriantly as on 
any new laid piece. If tlie top-dressing were repeated once in 
five or six years, there would be no danger of exhaustion, though 
there would be an advantage in loosening the earth with the 
plough. But the use of stable manure should be coiihned 
mostly to mowing land. On closely fed pastures it would be 
injudicious, from its exposure to the sun. On these, ashes or 
plaster would be better. 

An Essex county farmer says: "Peruvian guano, mixed 
with 1-oam, is unquestionably the best manure for top-dressing 
that can be found. Ashes are very good for lands that are liable 
to be washed by the fall and early spring rains. I should think 
that the spring would be the best time to spread it, but on lands 
not so sitnated the fall would bo more proper. In the latter 
case the manure would be entirely mixed in around tlie roots of 
the grass, and all the strength of the manure wonld remain in 
the ground." 

An experienced and intelligent practical farmer, of Bristol 
county, says : " I top-dress moist mowing lands in winter or 
early spring, with eight or ten loads of fine manure, or with 
about 300 lbs. of guano, mixing the guano with twice its bulk 
of dry sand moistened with water containing about two ounces 
of sulphuric acid in solution to tlie gallon of water." 

No farm should be managed without a compost heap, since it 
may be so made as to form an extremely valuable article for' 
top-dressing. A quantity of meadow mud should be dug out in 
the autumn for this special purpose. Two cords of peat mud, 
added to one cord of good stable manure, will make, in the esti- 
mation of many practical farmers, a compost of three cords of 
valuable manure. This has been tried repeatedly, and is con- 
stantly done by those ambitious to excel in farming. To this 
compost heap should be added, from time to time, all tlie animal 
and vegetable matter adapted to ferment and enrich the soil. 
Woollen rags, the remains of fish, the blood and flesh of animals? 
the hair of animals, all these make an exceedingly rich manure. 
A most intelligent gentleman connected with a wool factory, 
informs me that a cord of matter collected at the establishment, 



TREATMENT OF GRASS LANDS. 223 

is worth at least five or six cords of the best stable manure, for 
a top-dressing. This we cannot doubt, for here are the blood, 
the wool, pieces of the skin of the animal, a little lime, and many 
other substances, all collected together. A fermentation takes 
place, by which the richest gases are formed. Such a compost 
heap, with an addition of loam and mud, would be invaluable 
for a top-dressing. But though in most cases all these sub- 
stances cannot be procured, many of them can, and should be 
saved by every one who is desirous of improving his land. Those 
who arc near the sea, or near the market, can procure an abun- 
dance of fish to add to the compost. Nothing is better for'soils 
than this. A little lime added to the heap, causes its rapid and 
thorough decomposition. Ashes should also be added. When 
additions of manure are made, they should be covered with mud 
or loam, to prevent waste. 

We need not enter more minutely into the details of forming 
the compost heap. It is sufficient to say, in a word, that every 
thing capable of fermentation should be added to it. The lower 
layer should be of loam or mud. Nothing is more common 
among farmers, on the death of a horse or any other animal, 
than to throw the body away. It is estimated by some, that the 
body of a single horse, when divided and mixed witli peat mud 
and loam, will make a compost worth fifteen or twenty loads of 
the best and richest manure. This is, perhaps, too higli an 
estimate, but animal substances ferment rapidly, or rather they 
may be said to putrefy without fermenting, so quick is their 
decomposition. If leaves, grasses, moss, straw and other sub- 
stances of like nature, are used, lime will be useful in causing 
their ra})id decay. When these are well fermented, tlie heap 
should be thrown over, and if made long and narrow, so as to 
expose the greater surface to the air, it will be the better. 

The value of a compost, properly made, is greater than the 
aggregate value of the several ingredients applied separately, no 
matter what or how rich they may be. Besides, some divisor 
is needed for concentrated or other powerful manures, by means 
of which they may be more evenly and judiciously applied. 
Peat, or dry meadow muck, is one of the best and most availa- 
ble of these divisors, if properly prepared by exposure to the 
influence of air and frost. No good farmer would ever use lime 
in compost with barnyard manure or animal substances, unless 



224 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

peat muck, gypsum or charcoal were largely used in the same 
mixture. 

Animals fed on rich food make far the most valuable manure. 
This will serve, in part, to show why the manure from the sty 
is so fertilizing. Swine are fed on a great variety of rich 
food. The actual profit of raising them, arises mainly from the 
amount of substances they will mix together and make into 
good manure. If the sty be supplied, at intervals, with mud, 
loam, and other vegetable matter, the farmer will not complain 
of the cost of these animals. 

Liquid manures are highly useful to grasses. Care should 
be taken to apply them, also, to the compost heap. The rich- 
ness of manure from the sty is due to the quantity of liquid 
matter it contains. Hence the importance of adding a great 
variety of vegetable substances, loam, and mud. In a word, it 
may be said, that all liquid manures contain a large amount of 
nitrogen, which is one principal ingredient of ammonia, to which 
we have alluded. The importance of saving the liquid of the 
stable, either with the compost, or to be applied by itself, may 
be seen, also, in the fact that the exceeding richness of guano, 
and the manure of all fowls and birds, is due to the union of the 
liquids and solids. 

After fermentation has taken place in animal manures, in the 
compost or elsewhere, they maybe spread without much loss by 
evaporation, and hence it matters not whether the top-dressing 
is applied in the autumn or in the spring. Plaster is better 
spread in the spring, when the moisture of the earth makes it 
immediately available. Some prefer the autumn for spreading 
compost manures, while others prefer the spring, just before the 
thick grass surrounds and protects them from the sun and wind. 
The soil, in autumn, is not injured by the loaded cart, as is liable 
to be the case in spring. Others still, apply them after the first 
mowing, and before the summer rains. The new crop preserves 
the manure from drying up and wasting. This, however, is 
ordinarily too busy a season to attend to it with convenience. 

We have then, these several methods of improving our pas- 
ture lands. First. To allow some of them to run to wood, or 
which is far better, to plant them with forest trees, which 



TREATMENT OP GRASS LANDS. 225 

should never have been entirely cut from them. This applies 
to poor, thin soils at a distance from the homestead. 

Second. To plough and cultivate where this can be done on 
strong, good soils, which are not too stubborn and rocky. This 
applies to many lands which have been used as pastures time out 
of mind, the soils of which are naturally good, but have run out 
from neglect. Put soil into a good state of culture and rich 
and nutritive grasses will flourish as naturally as weeds. The 
former are nearly as spontaneous on good soils, as the latter 
are on poor ones. The success will depend chiefly on good 
culture if this mode is adopted. 

Third. To scarify the surface thoroughly with a sharp tooth 
harrow, sowing on a suitable mixture of grass seeds spoken of 
above, and then harrow and brush over again, the work to be 
done in September or very early in spring, if the snrface ie 
hard enough to go over with cattle without too much poaching. 
This applies to old pastures covered with moss, where the sweet 
grasses are run out, but which foom their particular location 
may not be desirable for woodland, nor pay for a more complete 
and careful improvement. 

Pourth. To mix the grass seeds as evenly as possible with a 
finely divided compost and use it as a top-dressing, first harrow- 
ing the surface to loosen it, and after spreading the compost, 
brushing it over Avith a brush harrow to break up the lumps. 
This will cost a little more than the preceding method, but the 
grass seed will start sooner, make a larger and finer growth the 
first season and give greater satisfaction. This applies to very 
much the same class of lands as the preceding. In both cases, 
if the pasture, or any part of it is covered with bushes, they 
should of course be cut or grubbed up ; if it is wet or covered 
with stagnant waters they should of course be drained ofl" so as 
at least to leave a dry and liealthy surface. It is unnecessary to 
say that the top-dressing should be free from weed seed, and be 
in a finely divided state. This method of improvement is per- 
fectly practicable on thousands of acres which are now in a 
state both discreditable and unprofitable to their owners. 

Pifth. To pasture sheep, turning in as many as the pasture 
will carry, stocking, in other words, pretty closely, for a few 
years. Tlie first objection that many farmers raise to this 
method is, that the cost of fences is great, and that it is a branch 

29 



226 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

of husbandry with which they arc not acquainted. This may 
be so, but the testimony of those who have tried this method is 
uniformly in its favor. I have liad some experience and con- 
siderable observation in sheep husbandry, and my attention has 
been called to the changes wrought by sheep upon rough pas- 
tures covered with bushes and briars in part, and it appears to 
be a practicable method of improvement, while the raising of 
sheep and lambs for the shambles, is destined to be a profitable 
branch of farming. 

Irrigation. — Another practicable means of improving our 
grass lands is by irrigation. Every casual observer, even, is 
familiar with the fact that lands are fertilized by irrigation, and 
especially that the grass by running streams shoots earlier in 
spring and makes a far more thrifty growth than lands on the 
same kind of soil which have not the advantage of running 
water. The introduction of the hydraulic ram among the 
implements of the farm, offers facilities for irrigating grass 
lands, not hitherto known, and it will unquestionably become 
hereafter an important means of guarding against our severe 
summer droughts, and of increasing vastly the production of 
our lands. 

It would be impossible to state with any detail the different 
methods adopted to effect the objects of irrigation, since it 
would require a distinct treatise upon the subject, and it is 
sufficient to allude to the simplest mode employed with suc- 
cess, and the advantages offered. 

Superficial irrigation, which is, perhaps, the oldest and the 
most common form in which water is artificially applied for the 
purpose of increasing the growth of grass, was undoubtedly 
suggested by observing the wonderful effects arising from the 
overflow of rivers. Remarkable examples of this are familiar 
to many, as the annual or periodical overflowing of the Nile, 
where the water without being left to stagnate upon the surface, 
is moving gently over it, depositing whatever alluvial matter it 
may hold in suspension. The extraordinary richness of the 
Valley of the Mississippi, and on a smaller scale, of the Valley of 
the Connecticut and other rivers, is mainly due, also, to this 
kind of irrigation ; and this is imitated in our attempts to con- 
duct the water over grass land by a system of shallow, open 



TREATMENT OF GRASS LANDS. 227 

drains, which take the water from its natural channel, keeping 
a constant flow without allowing it to accumulate in any part. 

The process of surface irrigation is not so simple as many 
would suppose. It requires considerable skill and practice, and 
many failures have followed experiments of this kind, made 
without due care and attention. Sir John Sinclair, however, 
in speaking of this operation calls it one of the " easiest, cheap- 
est and most certain modes of improving poor land in particu- 
lar, if it is of a dry and gravelly nature. Land when once 
improved by irrigation is put into a state of perpetual fertility, 
without any occasion for manure or trouble of weeding, or any 
other material expense ; it becomes so productive as to yield 
the largest bulk of hay, besides abundance of the very best 
support for ewes and lambs in the spring, and for cows and other 
cattle in the autumn of every year. In favorable situations it 
produces very early grass in the spring, when it is doubly valu- 
able ; and not only is the land thus rendered fertile Avithout 
any occasion for manure, but it produces food for animals, 
which is converted into manure to be used on other lands, thus 
augmenting that great source of fertility." 

The effect and value of irrigation does not depend altogether 
upon the artificial supply of moisture wdiich it furnishes to the 
plant. " The mechanical action of the irrigatory current of 
water, in exercising the plants, strengthening their organisms, 
keeping their stems and root crowns clear of obstruction, pro- 
moting the eqiiable circulation of water and oxygen around 
them, and causing an equable distribution of the soluble mate- 
rials of their food, probably plays a considerable part in irriga- 
tory fertilization. The differences of efiect, from the mere 
circumstance of flowing or stagnation of the water, are pro- 
digious ; for while flowing water coaxes up the finest indigenous 
grasses of the climate, and renders them sweet and wholesome, 
and nutritious, and luxuriant, stagnant water starves, deterio- 
rates, or kills all the good grasses." 

The effect which surface irrigation produces on the nutritive 
qualities of the grasses may be seen by reference to the tables 
of analyses found in a preceding section. 

This subject ought to receive the careful attention of the enter- 
prising farmer. Even a farmer of very limited means may do 



228 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

something each year towards improving his pasture lands. He 
may lessen the area of the bushes, he may plough up a small piece 
at least, and seed down at once with grass seed and winter rye, 
either in the spring or in the fall, and in either case his stock 
will fare enough better to pay for it, and the next year he 
may take another piece in the same pasture till the whole is 
finished, when it Avill carry more stock, and more stock will 
give him more manure, and more manure will increase the 
fertility of other lands, and increased fertility will add to his 
means of further improvement. The difficulty with most small 
farmers is to begin. Well begun is half well done, for the 
moment any real improvement is begun in earnest, the interest 
is excited, the mental activity is increased, the desire for 
improvement partakes the nature of a passion, and hence, 
though the beginning may be small, the ending may be the 
renovation of the owner as well as the land. 



In conclusion, I have one farther suggestion to make, and 
that is, as to the propriety of encouraging the collection of 
grasses for exhibition at the anniversary festivals of our agri- 
cultural societies. It would be an easy thing, I think, to 
engage many in this fascinating pursuit. Some, undoiibtedly, 
would be interested by the simple suggestion, but the offer of 
small premiums for the largest and best arranged collection 
would induce others to attempt it who now want something to 
stimulate tliem to the work. The premium, however small, 
might afford the necessary stimulus, and if an interest were 
once excited, the subject would be still farther pursued, till 
many others were interested, while the collections, if properly 
named, would do much to disseminate a higher knowledge of 
the exhaustless riches of this class of plants. 

" The royal rose — the tulip's glow — 
The jasmine's gold are fair to see ; 
But while the graceful grasses grow, 
O, gather them for me ! 

The pansy's gold and purple wing, 

The snowdrop's smile may light the lea ; 

But while the fragrant grasses spring. 
My wreath of them shall be ! " 



INDEX OE SYSTEMATIC NAMES. 





Page. 








Page. 


Agrostig stolonifcra, . 


20, 22, 112 


Elymus, arenariua. 






8,62 


" perennans, . 


. 21 


" Virginicus, . 






. 62 


" vulgaris, 


5, 18, 111, 116 


'' Canadensis, . 






62 


" alba, . . . . 


20, 22, 111 


" striatus, 






. 62 


" canina, . . . . 


. 20 


Eragrostis reptans. 






. 45 


" Ecabra, . . . . 


. 21 


" poceoides, . 






. 46 


" dispar, . . . . 


. 22 


<• megastachya, . 






. 46 


Andropogon furcatus, 


. 80 


" pilosa, 






46 


" scoparius. 


. 81 


" capillaris, . 






46 


" nutans, . 


. 81 


" pectinacca, 






. 46 


Anthoxanthum odoratum, . 


71, 116 


Festuca tenella, . 






. 46 


Aira flexuosa, . . . . 


63, 64 


" oviaa, . 




47, 48, 110 


" csepitosa, . . . . 


63, 110 


>' pratensis. 




47, 48, 111 


" aquatica, 


. 64 


" elatior, . 






49, 111) 


Alopecurus pratensis, . 8, 


12. 68, 111, 116 


" duriuscula, . 






50, 110 


" agrestis, . 


. 8,14.112 


" rubra, . 






50 


" geniculatus. 


8, 14, 15, 110 


" loliacea. 






50 


" aristulatus, 


8,15 


" nutans, 






50 


Ammophila arundinacca, . 


8, 25, 111, 158 


Glyceria Canadensis, . 






. 34 


Avena pratensis, . 


. 66, 110 


" obtusa, 






. 34 


" flavescens, 


. 66 


" distans. 






. 35 


Aristida dichotoma, 


. 30 


" elongata, 






34 


" gracilis, . 


. 30 


'• nervata, 






. 34 
. . 35 


Arrhenatherum ayenaceum, 


. 66, 111 


" pallida, 






Briza media, 


46, 47 


" acutiflora, . 






. 35 


" maxima, . 


. 46 


Gymnostichum Hystrix, 






. 63 


Brizopyrum spicatum. 


. 35 


Hedysarum onobrychis, 






. 100, 117 


Bromus secaliniis, 


51, 53, 112 


Hierocliloa borealis, . 






. 70 


" racemosiis, 


52, 55 


IIolcus lanatus, . 




. 


59, 111, 116 


" mollis, . 


52, 55, 112, 116 


Holcus mollis. 






. 69 


•' Kalmii, . 


. 56 


Hordeum jubatum, . 






. 62 


" ciliatus, . 


. 56 


" distichum, . 






. 62 


" pratensis, 


. 56 


" Tulgare, 






. 62 
. 101 


Calamagrostis canadensis, , 


8, 25 


Juncaginese, 






" coarctata, . 


8, 25 


Juncaceaj, . 






102 


Cinnaa rundinacea, 


. 23 


Leersia oryzoides, 






. 8, 11, 110 


Cynosurus cristatus, . 


50, 51, 116 


" Virginica, 




», la 


Cyperacea>, .... 


. 105 


Lolium perenne, . 




56, 59, 111 


Cenchrus tribuloides. 


. 80 


" Itivlicum. 




58, 59, 111 


DantUonia spicata. 


. 65 


" temulentum, . 




58, 60 


Dactylis glomerata, 5, 31, 


58, 110, 111, 116 


" multiflorum, . 




59, 60 


Eatonia Pennsylvanica, 


. 33 


Medicago sativa, 






ye, 11/ 



230 



INDEX. 









Page. 












Page. 


Millium effusum, 76 


Poa compressa, 9,33,112 


Muhlenbergia diffusa, 






8, 23 


" annua . 






5, 9, 39, 112 


" crecta, . 






8, 23 


" trivialis, 






9, 39, 40, 112 


" glomcrata, 






8, 23 


" nemoralis. 






. 9,40,41 


" Mexicana, 






8, 24 


" tiuitaua. 








42, 110 


" fiylTatica, 






8, 24 


" laxa. 








9,43 


" sobolifera. 






8, 24 


" aquatica. 








43, 110 


" WillJenovii, 






8^24 


Polypogon monspeliensis, 






8,23 


" capillaris, 






8, 24 


Sctaria verticillata, 






. 79 


Moha de Hongrie, 






. 78 


" Glauca, . 








79 


Oryzopsis mclanocarpa, 






8, 30 


Sotaria viridis, 








80 


'' asferifolia, . 






. 30 


Setaria Italica, 








80 


" Caoader.sia, . 






. 30 


Sorghum saccharatum, 








81 


Panicum filiforme, 






10, 76 


" nutans, 








90 


" glabrum, 






11, 77 


" Tulgare, 








90 


" sanguinale, . 






11, 77 


Spartina cynosuroides. 








30 


" agrostoides, 






11, 77 


" polystacliya. 






30, 111 


" proliferum, . 






11, 77 


" juncea, . 






30, 111 


" capillare, 






11, 77 


" Btricta, . 






80, 111 


" Tirgatuui, . 






11, 77 


Sporobolus serotinus, . 






. 18 


" latifolium, . 






11, 78 


Stipa avenacea, . 






. 80 


" clandestuium, 






11, 78 


Tricuspis purpurea. 






. 31 


" xanthophysum, 






11, 78 


Trifolium pratense, 






92, 117 


" crus-galli, . 






. 78 


" repens, 






96, 117 


" germanicum, 






78, 79 


Trisetum mollis, . 






. 66 


Paspalum setaceum, . 






. 76 


" pubescens, . 






. 60 


Phalaris arundinacea, 




54, 72, 73, 110 


Triticum repens. 






60, Gl, 112 


" Canariensis, 




. . 76 


Trips.acum dactyloides, 






.■ 80 


Phleum pratense, 5, 8, 15, 16, 17, 18, 111, 116, 


Vilfa aspera, 






. 17 


118, 121 


" Taginasflora, 






. 17 


Phragmites communis, . . .56, 110 


'• serotina, 






. 18 


Poa nervata, 


9, 34 


Xyris bulbosa, 






. 104 


" serotina. 


. 9, 34, 44, 153 


" caroliniana, 






. 104 


" pratensis, 


9, 35, 36, 39, 111 


Zea mais. 






. 91 


" maritima, 


9. 


35,4 


1, 102, 111 


Zizania aquatica , 








12, 110 



GENEEAL INDEX. 



Aftermath, growth of, 
Alfalfa, . 
Allen's MoAver, 
Ammonia, importance of, 
Analysis of the Grasses, 
Annual Beard Grass, 
Annual Spear Grass, 
Arrow Grasses, list of, 
Ash of the Grasses, analy 
Ashes, use of, as manure, 



sis of. 



Barn Grass, 
Beach Grass, 

" " culture of, 

Bearded Darnel, . 
Bengal Grass, 
Black Grass, 
Blue Grass, 
Blue-joint Grass, . 
Bones, value of, as manure, 
Borden's Grass, 
Bottle-brush Grass,. 
Bottle Grass, 
Brown Bent, 
Bristly Foxtail, 
Bur Grass, 

Canadian Lyme Grass, 

Chandler Grass, . 

Chess, 

Chinese Sugar Cane, 

Cii'cular Letter, . 

Climate — its effect on vegetation. 

Clover Seed, time of sowing, 



17, 113, 201, 203 

. 96, 97, 99 

170, 174, 175 

217, 218, 223 

74, 118, 121, 124 

. 23 

35, 39, 112, IIG, 118, 121 
. 101 
. 124 
214, 216 



25, 



26, 28, 



130, 



. 78 

111, 146, 158 

26, 28, 29 

. 60 

. 80 

102, 111 

38, 112 

. 25 

. 219 

18, 19 

. 63 

. 79 

. 20 

. 79 

. 80 

. 62 

60,61 

51, 53, 112 

81, S3, 85, 90 

. 123 
131, 132, 136 

. 139 



232 



INDEX. 



Clover, mode of curing, . 
Common Reed Grass, 
Common Manna Grass, . 
Common Canary Grass, . 
Common Spear Grass, 
Compost, modes of forming, 
Corn Fodder, curing of, . 
Couch Grass, 

Creeping Meadow Grass, . 
Creeping Soft Grass, 
Crested Dog's Tail, 
Curing, methods of, 

Darnel, 

Drainage, importance of, . 

Dew Grass, 

Downy Persoon, . 

Downy Oat Grass, 

English Bent, 

Fall Feeding, practice of, 

Fall Seeding, 

False Redtop, 

False Rice, 

Feather Grass, 

Field Barley Grass, 

Floating Meadow Grass, 

Floating Foxtail, 

Flyaway Grass, 

Finger-spiked Wood Grass, 

Finger Grass, 

Fiorin, 

Food of Animals, . 

Forest Trees, culture of, 

Fowl Meadow Grass, 

Fresh Water Cord Grass, 

Fringed Brome Grass, 

Finetop, . 

Fowl Meadow Grass, 

Gama Grass, 
Goose Grass, 
Grasses, growth in sun and shade, 

" effect of soil and seasons on, 

•' nutritive value of the, 

" mixtures of, 

" list of the, 



50, 51, 116, 



. 20 

201, 203 
137, 139, 140 
. 44 
. 11 
. 30 
. Ill 
. 42 

14, 15, 110 
. 21 
. 80 
. 77 
20, 22 

1, 113, 114 
208, 209, 224 
. 44 
. 30 
. 56 
. 18 
. 44 

. 80 
41, 42, 102, 103, 111 
131, 135, 137, 128 
2, 113, 128, 130 
112, 113, 118, 119, 121, 122, 161, 126 
118, 142, 144, 147, 151, 158, 160 
8, 110, 111, 116 



186, 


188 


56, 


110 


42, 


110 




76 


35, 37, 38 


220, 221, 


223 


189, 


190 


60, 61, 


112 


. 


45 


. 


69 


118, 121, 


146 


185, 


187 




56 


204, 


225 


18 


,20 




66 


65, 66, 


111 



INDEX. 



233 



Grasses, importance of the, 
" classification of, . 
" description or natural history of, 
" technical terms applied to the, 
" flowers of the, 
" time of cutting, . 
" analysis of the, . 
" time of sowing, . 
Grass Lands, treatment of 
" " top-dressing of, 

" " drainage of. 

Grass Seed, mode of buying, 
" " weight of, 
" " germination of, 
" " time of sowing, 
" " selection of, . 
" " depth of covering, 
Green Foxtail, 
Green Meadow Grass, 
Guano as a top-dressing, . 

Hassock Grass, 

Hairy Slender Paspalum, . 

Hair Panided Meadow Grass, 

Hair Grass, 

Hair Stalked Panic Grass, 

Hairy Meadow Grass, 

Hay, nutritive value of, . 

" curing of, . ' 
Hay Caps, use of, . 

" " permanent. 
Hard Fescue Grass, 
Heath's Mower, . 
Hoove in Cattle, . 
Horserake, use of, 
Hungarian Millet, 

Indian Corn, 
Indian ^lillet, 
Indian Rice, 
Indian Grass, 
Irrigation, effect of, 
Italian Rye Grass, 

June Grass, 

Kentucky Blue Grass, 
Ketchum's Mower, 

30 



1, 6, 112 

. 2, 5, 7, 8, 110, 113 

. 2, 5, 7, 11 to 112 

. 2, 5, 6, 7 

3, 5, 7 

. 161, 162, 164, 166 

54, 118, 120, 121, 122 

. 137 

. 204, 207, 208, 224 

. 210 

. 204 

141, 145 

. 145, 146, 148, 159 

6, 131, 142, 146, 147 

137, 140 

141, 142- 

. 146 

. 79 

. 35, 37, 38 

205, 222 

. 63, 110, 146 

. • . .76 

. 46 

. 21 

. 77 

. 46 

103, 104, 109, 126, 127 

181, 183 

196, 199 

200, 201 

50, 110, 116, 118, 121, 146 

175, 176, 177 

101, 104 

191, 193, 195 

78, 80 

6, 91, 92, 115, 189, 190 
. 90 
. 12 

. 90 
118, 121, 123, 226, 226 
58, 59, 60, 111, 118, 121, 123, 146 



35, 37, 38, 118, 121, 146 

. 35, 37, 38 
171, 173 



234 



INDEX. 



Late Drop Seed, . 
Lawn Grasses, mixture of, 
Long Panicled Manna Grass, 
Lucerne, culture of, 

" nutritive value of, 

Lyme Grass, 

Manny's Mower, . 
Manures for Grass Lands, 
Meadow Fescue Gi'ass, 
Meadow Brome Grass, 
Meadow or Swale Hay, . 
Meadow Spear Grass, 
Meadow Soft Grass, 
Meadow Oat Grass, 
Meadow Foxtail, . 
Millet Grass, 

Mixtures of Grass Seed, . 
Mountain Rice, 
Mowing, height of. 
Mowing Machines, use of, 

" " premiums for, 

Nitrogen, importance of, in food. 
Nutritive Value of Grasses, 
Nutritive Equivalents, tables of, 
Nerved Manna Grass, 
Nitrogen, value of, in plants, 
Nodding Fescue Grass, 

Oil Cake, effect of, as food. 
Orchard Grass, 
Over-seeding with few species, 



Pasture Grasses, . 
Pastures, turf of old, 

" renovation of, 
Perennial Rye Grass, 
Poverty Grass, 
Prolific Panic Grass, 

Quaking Grass, 
Quitch Grass, 

Rattlesnake Grass, 
Redtop, 
Red Clover, 
" " curing of, 



5,31 



12, 



. 18 

153, 154 

. 34 

96, 97, 99, 146 

120, 122 

. 62 

168, 169, 175 

205, 210, 214, 219, 222 

47, 48, 111, 146 

56, 57 

103, 104, 109 

. 34, 118, 121 

68, 69, 111, 118, 121, 146 

66, 110 

13, 17, 68, 111, 116, 118, 121 

76, 146 

142, 144, 151, 153, 158, 160 

. 30 

179, 181 

. 167 

. 167 

114, 115 
118, 119, 120, 121, 126, 163 

125, 127 
. 34 
. 114 
. 50 

. 115 

110, 111, 116, 118, 121, 146 

. 159 

148, 151, 152, 166 

148, 149 

205, 209, 210, 224 

56, 57, 110, 146 

. 30 

. . 77 

46, 47, 118, 121 
60, 61 

. 34 

5, 18, 111, 116, 118, 121, 146, 148 

92, 93, 95, 119, 120, 122, 146, 148 

186, 188 



112, 114 



32,58 



INDEX. 



235 



Reed Canary Grass, 


. 72,73,74,76,110 


" " " nutritive value of, 


. 54 


Red Fescue Grass, 


. 49, 50, 146 


Rhode Island Bent, 


. 19 


Ribbon Grass, .... 


. 73 


Rice Grass, . . ... 


11, 110 


Roots of Timothy Grass, . 


164, 165, 166 


Rough Stalked Meadow Grass, . 


39, 40, 112, 118, 121 


Rush-like Grasses, list of. 


101, 102 


Rush Grass, .... 


. 17 


Rush Salt Grass, . . . 


30, 111 


Salt Marshes, ditching of, 


.104 


Salt Marsh Grass, 


30, 110 


Salt Reed Grass, 


.30, 111 


Sand Grass, .... 


. 31 


Sainfoin, . . . . . 


. 100, 120, 122, 146 


Sea Spear Grass, 


41, 42, 102, 103 


Seasons, influence of, . 


. 128, 130, 132, 137 


Sedges, list of, . 


. 105 


Seed, selection of, ... 


141, 142 


Seneca Grass, .... 


. 70 


Shade — its effect on the quality of grass, . 


128, 135, 136 


Sheeps' Fescue Grass, 


47, 48, 110, 146 


Slender Crab Grass, 


. 76 


Slender Foxtail, 


. 14 


Slender Spiked Fescue, . 


. 50, 51, 146 


Slender Meadow Grass, . 


. 46 


Slender Hairy Lyme Grass, 


. 62 


Small Fescue Grass, 


. 46 


Smooth Crab Grass, . . . . 


. 77 


Soil — its effect on the grasses. 


2, 19, 113, 144 


Soils, mixture of, ... 


211, 223 


Soft Brome Grass, 


.112 


Squirrel-tail Grass, 


. 62 


Star Grasses, list of, . 


. 104 


Starch, transformation into woody fibre, . 


163, 179 


Striped Grass, .... 


. 73 


Stooking of Corn, practice of. 


. 190 


Sugar, manufacture of, . 


. 81, 82, 89 


Swale Grass, .... 


. 104, 105, 109, 112 


Sweet-scented Vernal Grass, 


71, 116, 118, 121, 146 


Swale Hay, value of, . 


54, 105, 162 


Tall Fescue Grass, . , . . 


49, 110, 146 


Tall Smooth Panic Grass; 


. 77 


Tall Oat Grass, . . . . 6( 


5, 68, 111, 146, 116, 118, 121 


Time of cutting grass for hay, 


161, 163, 164 



236 



INDEX. 



Timothy, . . 5, 12, 15, 16, 17, 60, 116 

" sown witli Clover, 

" time of cutting, 

Tickle Grass, 

Top-dressing of grass lands, 
TVeatment of grass lands, 
Tufted Hair Grass, 
Twitch Grass, 

Upright Sea Lyme Grass, 

Vanilla Gi-ass, 
Vegetation, conditions of. 
Velvet Grass. 

Water Hair Grass, 

Water Spear Grass, 

Wavy Meadow Grass, 

Weather — its effect on vegetation 

Weeds, analysis of. 

White Clover, 

White Grass, 

White Top, 

Wild Oat Grass, . 

Willard's Bromus, 

Wire Grass, 

Wild Chess, 

Wild nice, 

Wild Water Foxtail, 

Wild Rye, 

Woburn Experiments, 

Wood Hair Grass, 

Wood Meadow Grass, 

Wood Reed Gjass, 

Yellow Oat Grass, 
Yellow-eyed Grassas, list of. 



118, 121, 123, 143, 163, 164 
17, 144, 148 
. 106 
. 21 
210, 212, 221 
204, 207, 209, 224 
63, 110, 146 
. 60, 61, 112 

. 62 









70 






130, 


131 






69, 


146 






64 


,65 






43, 


110 
43 


2, 128, 


131, 


135, 


136 
125 


06, 97, 


120, 


122, 


146 
12 


20 


,65, 


111, 


146 
65 






51, 


112 






38, 


112 

56 






12, 


110 
15 
62 






113, 


114 






63,64 








40 






• 


23 


66, 


118 


121, 


146 
104 



Erratum.— On p. 102, sixth line from tbfi buttorn, for p. 49, Fig. 30, read p. 41, Fig. 30. Th« 
8ame occurs ia the In-st line on the s.ame page. 



'J«E.!^ 



